<p>Cushman Dam No. 1 is a hydroelectric dam on the North Fork of the Skokomish River in Mason County, Washington, which in derogation of the natural and treaty rights of the Native inhabitants impounded and enlarged the formerly natural Lake Cushman, leading to damage claims in excess of $5 billion and an eventual settlement agreement with the Skokomish tribe that terminates the right to operate the dam after 2048. It was built by Tacoma City Light  in 1924–1926. Tacomas demand for electricity grew rapidly after World War I. Tacoma City Lights Nisqually River Hydroelectric Project, built in 1912, could not meet the demand and the utility decided to build a new hydroelectric project on the North Fork Skokomish River. The dam and powerhouse first began to deliver electricity on February 12, 1926.</p><br>
<p>It has a concrete arch design and includes 90,000 cubic yards (69,000 m³) of concrete, covering a whole 6,244 ft of water. Two 21,600 kilowatt generators provide 127 million kilowatt-hours annually to the Tacoma Power system.</p><br>
<p>Construction began on July 7, 1924, under the commissioner Ira S. Davidsson (1918–1940). It has a top width of 8 ft and a base width of 50 ft, at 275 ft high and 1,111 ft long. The transmission of electricity to Tacoma, over lines crossing Tacoma Narrows, was activated, or "formally energized", on March 23, 1926, with the push of a button by President Calvin Coolidge in a ceremony at the White House.</p><br>
<p>A second, smaller dam, Cushman Dam No. 2, 3.2 km downstream of Dam No. 1, was completed by December 1930.</p><br>
<p>Cushman Dam No. 2 is a hydroelectric dam on the North Fork of the Skokomish River in Mason County, Washington, United States, forming Lake Kokanee. Built in 1930, its three 27,000 kilowatt generators provide 233 million kilowatt-hours annually to the Tacoma Power system. Along with Cushman Dam No. 1, it is part of Tacoma Power&#39;s Cushman Project.</p><br>
<p>Construction began in 1929 and power production began in December 1930. The dam is 575 ft long, 8 ft wide at the top and 40 ft at the base. It is 235 feet tall. Its reservoir, Lake Kokanee, is 2 mi long.</p><br>
<p>Glendower, now known as Glendower Historic Mansion and Arboretum, is a historic Greek Revival style house located at 105 Cincinnati Avenue, USA Route 42, Cincinnati Avenue, in Lebanon, Ohio. It was built in 1836 by Amos Bennett for John Milton Williams, a Lebanon merchant, and named for Owain Glyndŵr . It has been called "one of the finest examples of Residential Greek Revival architecture style in the Midwest."</p><br>
<p>On November 10, 1970, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>From 1944 through 2007, Glendower was operated and maintained by the Ohio Historical Society. On December 3, 2007, it was transferred to the Warren County Historical Society, which ran the site until August 2022 as a museum.</p><br>
<p>Glendower sold in the fall of 2022 to a private buyer but the sale fell through when the buyer backed out and went on sale again in January 2023, with all restrictive Governor Deed covenants that limited its use removed.</p><br>
<p>The grounds of Glendower were often used by Civil War reenactors.</p><br>
<p>The Medina Dam is a hollow-masonry type dam built in 1911 and 1912 by the Medina Irrigation Company in what became Mico, Texas, USA. Medina Lake extends north of it in northeastern Medina County and southeastern Bandera County. The dam and irrigation project was designed and financed by Dr. Frederick Stark Pearson, an American engineer, with extensive British financial backing. The construction took over 1500 men two years to build while working 24 hours a day. They were mostly skilled Mexican workers with experience building other dams for Pearson. They received two dollars for a days work, which were good wages for the time. Pearsons Medina Irrigation Company  built a camp to house the workers and their families; the company town was first called MICO after its acronym. The community is now known as Mico, Texas.</p><br>
<p>When the dam was completed in 1913, it was the largest hydraulic engineering project west of the Mississippi River and the fourth-largest dam in the US. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places for its significance as an infrastructure project and its contributions to economic development of the county. Author of Ripples from Medina Lake, Rev. Cyril M. Kuehne claims a total of 70 lives were taken during the dam&#39;s construction, however, he only managed to locate 27 death certificates. Dr. Oscar B. Taylor, dentist of near-by settlement Hondo, Texas, was quoted by Kuehne as saying "sixty-six graves" were counted at a cemetery 3 miles away.</p><br>
<p>The dam contains over 292,000 cubic yards (223,000 m³) of concrete and measures 164 feet high by 128 feet (39 m) wide at the base by 1,580 feet (482 m) long. It is 25 feet (8 m) wide at the top, which is 1076.2 feet (328 m) above sea level, and the spillway is 1,064.2 feet (324 m) above sea level. The dam provides irrigation to over 34,000 acres (138 km²) to Blackland Prairie farmlands below the Balcones Escarpment around Castroville, Texas, and also supplies water to the Medina River Ultrafiltration Water Treatment Plant owned and operated by the San Antonio Water System.</p><br>
<p>The reservoir behind the dam is called Medina Lake and is a major recreation area. It discharges into the Medina River, which also contains a diversion dam four miles downstream.</p><br>
<p>The dam was featured in the 1919 serial The Masked Rider.</p><br>
<p>Medina Dam was once a publicly accessible, one-lane roadway that connected to County Road 260. In 1980, vehicle traffic was closed and rerouted to a new road known as County Road 264; although temporary use of the dam as a road continued in 1990.</p><br>
<h2>Historical State Markers on the Dam</h2><br>
<p>Located on the dam are three state-placed historical markers. These markers are currently inaccessible to the public after foot traffic was disallowed following the September 11 attacks in response to terrorism concerns.</p><br>
<h3>1936 Mountain Valley marker</h3><br>
<p>The earliest of the three markers is a 1936 state marker that acknowledges the previous Mormon settlement, Mountain Valley that was built in 1854 and was destroyed in 1913 during construction of the dam. The Mormon settlement Mountain Valley is now located underneath Medina Lake."Established in 1854 by 16 families of Mormons under the leadership of Lyman Wight (1796-1858). They abandoned their homes and mills in 1858 as the result of Indian depredations. Their lands are now beneath the waters of Medina Lake. Erected by the State of Texas - 1936."</p><br>
<h3>1978 Texas Historical Commission Marker</h3><br>
<p>The next is a marker placed in 1978 by the Texas Historical Commission that designated the dam as a state historical landmark."Henri Castro, who colonized this area in the 1840s, envisioned irrigated farms along the Medina River. The project was delayed, however, until after the turn of the century, when Dr. Fred Stark Pearson, an internationally known engineer, persuaded British investors to finance construction of a dam at this site. Completed in 1912, Medina Dam was hailed as the largest in Texas and the fourth largest in the United States. Limestone boulders from a nearby quarry added bulk to the massive concrete structure. Four miles downstream, a small diversion dam conducted water into a system of irrigation canals. Gravitational force delivered the water to fields. The outbreak of World War I (1914) disrupted ties with British investors. Seeking new capital, Dr. Pearson and his wife left for England in 1915 on the "Lusitania" and were killed when a German submarine torpedoed the ship. The irrigation network created by Medina Dam brought new prosperity to this region. Vegetables raised in irrigated fields became a valuable crop. Water and electricity were made available to rural residents. In 1925 voters established the Bexar-Medine-Atascosa Counties Water Improvement District No. 1 to manage the project. 1978."</p><br>
<h3>1991 Texas Historic Civil Engineering Marker</h3><br>
<p>Placed in 1991, a marker declared the dam a Texas Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Reopening of the Dam</h2><br>
<p>The Medina Lake Preservation Society is undertaking efforts to get the dam reopened to the public, or to at least have the historical markers moved so people can see them.</p><br>
<p>Fort Kearny was a historic outpost of the United States Army founded in 1848 in the Western United States during the middle and late 19th century. The fort was named after Colonel and later General Stephen Watts Kearny. The outpost was located along the Oregon Trail near Kearney, Nebraska. The town of Kearney took its name from the fort. The "e" was added to Kearny by postmen who consistently misspelled the town name. A portion of the original site is preserved as Fort Kearny State Historical Park by the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission.</p><br>
<p>The fort became the eastern anchor of the Great Platte River Road and thus an important military and civilian way station for 20 years. Wagon trains moving west, were able to resupply after completing about a sixth (16%) of the journey. The fort offered a safe resting area for the eastern immigrants in this new and hostile land. Livestock could be traded for fresh stock and letters sent back to the states. The fort continued to expand over the years, until there were over 30 buildings before its closure in 1871. It took on additional roles as a Pony Express station, an Overland Stage station and a telegraph station.</p><br>
<h2>Origins and various missions of the fort</h2><br>
<p>The fort was built in response to the growth of overland emigration to Oregon after 1845. The first post, Fort Kearny, was established in the spring of 1848 "near the head of the Grand Island" along the Platte River by Lieutenant Daniel P. Woodbury. It was first called Fort Chiles, but in 1848 the post was renamed Fort Kearny in honor of General Stephen Watts Kearny.</p><br>
<p>In 1848, the Pawnee Nation negotiated a major treaty with the US government at Fort Kearny. Noted diplomat Jeffrey Deroine, a formerly enslaved man, served as an interpreter for this treaty.</p><br>
<p>Despite its lack of fortifications, Fort Kearny served as way station, sentinel post, supply depot, and message center for 49&#39;ers bound for California and homeseekers traveling to California, Oregon and the Pacific Northwest. The earliest surviving photograph of the post, taken in 1858 by Samuel C. Mills, shows the post as a collection of adobe buildings without any wall or fortifications. By the 1860s, the fort had become a significant state and freighting station and home station of the Pony Express. During the Indian Wars of 1864–1865, a small stockade was apparently built upon the earth embankment still visible. Although never under attack, the post did serve as an outfitting depot for several Indian campaigns.</p><br>
<p>The fort was a precious source of provisions for emigrants on the early section of the trail for several decades during the height of the trail use until its abandonment in 1871. As it had been founded along the Platte River to protect emigrants on the trail westward, the fort became an important stop along the eastern part of the trail for the following decade, offering the sale of food, reliable mail service and other amenities. At the height of the pioneer trail use in the 1850s, as many as 2,000 emigrants and 10,000 oxen might pass through in a single day during the height of the trail season in late May.</p><br>
<p>One of the fort&#39;s final duties was the protection of workers building the Union Pacific. In 1871, two years after the completion of the transcontinental railroad, the fort was discontinued as a military post. Its buildings were disassembled and moved West to outfit newer posts.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The fort was intended mostly as a supply post, and not as defensive position in the Indian Wars. Throughout most of its history, the fort consisted mostly of wooden buildings surrounding a central parade ground without fortified walls. Throughout the decades of its use until the completion of the transcontinental railroad, the character of the buildings became slightly more permanent, changing from adobe and sod structures to wooden frame construction. Although it was in the heart of area inhabited by American Indians aka Native Americans, and was near the center of hostile action in the 1860s, no direct attack was ever made on the fort.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>First Fort Kearny</h3><br>
<p>The fort along the Platte River was the second of two army posts in present-day Nebraska to be named after Colonel Stephen W. Kearny of the US Army. In 1838, Kearny had scouted the area along the Missouri River at the mouth of Table Creek near present-day Nebraska City looking for a suitable location for an outpost to protect westward travelers. In 1846, following Kearny&#39;s recommendation, the United States War Department had ordered the building of an outpost on the site and directed Kearny to construct one there. The Army then sent Colonel Kearny with a detachment of men from Fort Leavenworth up the Missouri to the area with orders to construct an outpost at the selected site.</p><br>
<p>The Army constructed a two-story wooden blockhouse on the site, which became known as Camp Kearny and later Fort Kearny. The Army quickly realized, however, the location was not chosen well, since few emigrants passed the site on their way west. Instead, the main routes of the trails preferred by emigrants lay to the north near Omaha and to the south. Construction was subsequently halted on the site, with the exception of the erection of a number of log huts for temporary quarters for a battalion of troops who wintered there in 1847–1848.</p><br>
<h3>Second Fort Kearny</h3><br>
<p>In September 1847, Kearny sent topographical engineer Lt. Daniel P. Woodbury westward along the Platte looking for a more suitable location for the outpost. Woodbury selected a site in present-day central Nebraska near the spot where the Trail westward from Independence, Missouri joined the trail westward from Omaha and Council Bluffs. Woodbury described the spot in his journals as:</p><br>
<p>In December Woodbury went to Washington, D.C., with orders to secure organization of the new post. Woodbury requested an appropriation of $15,000 for construction, while advocating the employment of Mormon emigrants for construction. Although he did not receive these provisions, Woodbury received permission to build the fort from scratch with soldier labor.</p><br>
<p>The Army abandoned the Table Creek post in May 1848 and arrived at the new site in June. Woodbury directed construction of the fort with 175 men as labor. They built wooden buildings around a four-acre (16,000 m) parade ground, with cottonwood trees planted around the perimeter. Woodbury initially named the fort "Fort Childs" after Col. Thomas Childs, a famous soldier in the Mexican–American War, as well as Woodbury&#39;s father-in-law. A directive from War Department, however, directed that the name "Fort Kearny" would be transferred to the new fort.</p><br>
<p>The fort grew rapidly into an important trail stop. By June 1849, Woodbury noted in his journals that 4,000 wagons had passed the fort so far that year, mostly on their way to California. The fort accumulated large stores of goods for travelers, with the directive of selling them at a beneficial cost to the emigrants. Specifically, the commander of the fort was authorized to sell goods at cost to emigrants, and in some cases of hardship, to give goods to them for free. In 1850, the fort acquired regular once-a-month mail service with the arrival of a stagecoach route between Independence, Missouri and Salt Lake City. It was the first regular mail service established along the trail.</p><br>
<h2>Trail Junction</h2><br>
<p>Fort Kearny&#39;s location was chosen based on its proximity to the junction of several existing smaller trails, which joined into a single broader route that became known as the Great Platte River Road. At this location, immigrant trains from the Missouri River trail head converged</p><br>
<p>Eastern Trailsheads</p><br>
<p>Westport near Kansas City, used by most emigrants.</p><br>
<p>Fort Leavenworth</p><br>
<p>St. Joseph, Missouri</p><br>
<p>Nebraska City became a major freight center during The Mormon War and after the discovery of gold in the Colorado and Montana Territories (1858-1865). Freighters found the Ox-Bow Trail, with more abundant grass and water although longer and prone to having muddy lowlands. This was replaced in 1858 by the "Steam Wagon Road" which was a more direct route and improved after 1862.</p><br>
<p>Omaha, along with Florence, Nebraska, which served the Mormon Pioneers from Winter Quarters.</p><br>
<h2>Role in the Indian Wars</h2><br>
<p>The early years of the fort were relatively peaceful. After 1854, and the creation of the Nebraska Territory by the Kansas–Nebraska Act, the area around the fort in northern Kansas and southern Nebraska increasingly came under the hostile activity of the Cheyenne and Sioux tribes. In the summer of 1864, the irritation of the Native Americans at the encroachment by white settlers culminated in violent attacks on wagon trains along the Platte and the Little Blue River. During this time, soldiers from the fort began escorting wagon trains, and the fort became a center for refugees fleeing from attacks. Earthwork fortifications were constructed at the fort, and the Army ordered the deployment of the First Nebraska Cavalry and the Seventh Iowa Cavalry to the fort. By 1865, the conflict between Native Americans and white settlers had shifted westward away from the area of the fort.</p><br>
<h2>Later years and abandonment</h2><br>
<p>The construction of the Union Pacific Railroad across Nebraska starting in 1865 largely marked the end of the need for a fort to protect and supply wagon train emigrants. Following the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869, the US Army issued an order for abandonment of the post on May 22, 1871. In 1875, the buildings were torn down and the materials removed to barracks at North Platte and Sidney. The troops of the fort were restationed to Omaha and its stores were relocated to Fort McPherson 70 miles (110 km) to the west. In December 1876, the grounds were given over to the United States Department of the Interior for disbursement to settlements under the Homestead Act. Within several years, little remained of the fort except for cottonwood trees and the 1864 earthwork fortifications.</p><br>
<h2>Fort Kearny State Historical Park</h2><br>
<p>In 1928, the Fort Kearny Memorial Association was formed by Nebraska citizens to raise money to purchase and restore part of the grounds. The organization was able to purchase 40 acre of the original site, which it offered to the State of Nebraska. The State Legislature authorized the purchase, which became final on March 26, 1929. Thus acquired by the State of Nebraska in 1929, part of the original site is now operated as Fort Kearny State Historical Park by the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission. The site has been entered on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>In cooperation with the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, which operates the current State Historic Park, the Nebraska State Historical Society conducts ongoing archaeological investigations of the grounds. These digs have uncovered and marked the foundations of all major building on the site including headquarters, officers and troops quarters, parade grounds, storage and livestock stockade. A small theatre that shows a 20-minute history of the fort, a museum with collected artifacts and a reconstructed blacksmith shop with period cannons, caissons, tack and other equipment is behind the museum. There is space on the park for RV and trailer parking with some facilities. The park is only open during the summer months. Reenactors fire the authentic cannon every year on 4 July weekend ceremonies.</p><br>
<p>In June 2010, Governor Dave Heineman signed a Proclamation re-establishing the 2nd Battalion, Nebraska Veteran Cavalry; the unit will be at the Fort on three major holidays, Memorial Day weekend, July 4 weekend, and Labor Day weekend. This historical cavalry unit served at the fort during the Indian Wars, the unit is historically correct in every possible aspect; bugle calls used by the cavalry can be heard at differing times to announce the activities of the troop at the fort.</p><br>
<h2>Depiction in fiction</h2><br>
<p>In the novel Around the World in Eighty Days by Jules Verne, a train in the process of being hijacked by Sioux stops at Fort Kearny to request aid from the troops there. Such an event is somewhat of an anachronism, given that the conflicts with Native Americans had largely shifted away from the area by the time of the completion of the railroad.</p><br>
<p>The fort is prominently mentioned and described as a stop along the Oregon Trail in 1855 in the novel Westward Hearts (Homeward on the Oregon Trail Book 1) by Melody Carlson, 2012 chapter 25.</p><br>
<p>Fort Kearny also appears in the short-lived television western drama series The Loner starring actor Lloyd Bridges. The series, created and written by Rod Serling of "The Twilight Zone" fame, takes place in the late 1860s and features the fort in an episode titled "Westward the Shoemaker". The "Westward..." episode concerns an Eastern European Jewish immigrant who seeks a new life in Nebraska Territory as a bootmaker but runs afoul of a card shark.</p><br>
<p>The fort is mentioned in the introduction to an episode of the TV series Wagon Train, "The Willy Moran Story" as the next destination of the settlers.</p><br>
<p>The fort is also referenced in the HBO television series Deadwood in episode 5 of the first series as the closest place to find smallpox vaccine.</p><br>
<p>The fort is mentioned in the 2014 film The Homesman, as the post Tommy Lee Jones character was stationed when a soldier with the US Dragoons.</p><br>
<p>The fort is a stop in the Oregon Trail video game.</p><br>
<p>The fort is mentioned in the Song "One Black Sheep" by Mat Kearney</p><br>
<p>The fort is featured in the series "Hell on Wheels" where the shows protagonist Cullen Bohannon was imprisoned awaiting execution but was saved by and old ally named Doc.</p><br>
<p>The Harding Tomb is the burial location of the 29th President of the United States, Warren G. Harding and First Lady Florence Kling Harding. It is located in Marion, Ohio. Also known as the Harding Memorial, it was the last of the elaborate presidential tombs.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>Shortly after Harding died in office, the Harding Memorial Association formed to raise money for a memorial site in honor of the late president. The association ultimately received $978,000 in donations from more than one million people across the country, as well as contributions from several European nations. Among the list of contributors from the United States were an estimated 200,000 school children, who donated pennies towards the memorial. The tomb is located in Marion, Ohio, at the southeast corner of Vernon Heights Boulevard and Delaware Avenue, just south of Marion Cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Construction began in 1926 and finished in the early winter of 1927. It is designed in the style of a circular Greek temple with Doric order marble columns. The columns are built of Georgia white marble and are 28 ft high and 5 ft in diameter at the base. Designed by Henry Hornbostel, Eric Fisher Wood and Edward Mellon, the winners of a 1925 national design competition, the structure is 103 ft in diameter and 53 ft in height.</p><br>
<p>The structure is unroofed (peribolus), in the style of some Greek temples in which the center (Hypaethros) was open to the sky and without a roof (medium autem sub diva est sine tecto). The open design honors the Hardings&#39; wishes that they be buried outside, and is covered in ivy and other plantings.</p><br>
<h2>Burials</h2><br>
<p>At their deaths, the bodies of the Hardings were entombed in the Marion Cemetery Receiving Vault. Once the Harding Memorial was completed in 1927, the bodies were reinterred in the Memorials sarcophagus and it was sealed. Because Hardings reputation was damaged by personal controversies and presidential scandals, the Harding Memorial was not officially dedicated until 1931 when President Herbert Hoover presided.</p><br>
<h2>Dedication</h2><br>
<p>On June 16, 1931, President Herbert Hoover gave a speech at the dedication ceremony of the Warren G. Harding memorial. The following are excerpts from Hoover&#39;s eulogy:</p><br>
<h2>Oversight</h2><br>
<p>The Harding Memorial Association transferred ownership of the Harding Memorial to the Ohio Historical Society (OHS) in the 1980s. OHS undertook a restoration in the mid-1980s and began to refer to the site as the Harding Tomb, a better description of its function.</p><br>
<p>Following a reorganization, the Ohio Historical Society transferred day-to-day management of the memorial, and the Harding Home, to Marion Technical College (MTC) from 2011–2019. This arrangement reduced OHS&#39;s administrative burden while allowing MTC to attend to the site. OHS retained ownership and co-ordinated with MTC on major site issues. However, OHS reclaimed day-to-day management in 2019 in conjunction with the new Harding Presidential Center that was being constructed in Marion.</p><br>
<p>The memorial is the last of the elaborate presidential tombs, a trend that began with the burial of President Abraham Lincoln in his tomb in Springfield, Illinois. Since President Calvin Coolidge, Harding&#39;s successor, presidents have chosen burial plot designs that are simpler or combined those with their library sites.</p><br>
<p>The Judson Memorial Church is located on Washington Square South between Thompson Street and Sullivan Street, near Gould Plaza, opposite Washington Square Park, in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of the New York City borough of Manhattan. It is affiliated with the American Baptist Churches USA, the Alliance of Baptists, and with the United Church of Christ.</p><br>
<p>The church sanctuary, its campanile tower and the attached Judson Hall were designated landmarks by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1966, and were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Founding</h3><br>
<p>By the mid-19th century, the village had the largest African-American community in the city, along with joined German, French and Irish immigrants, and to the immediate south a majority of Italian immigrants. Earlier more affluent communities had begun an exodus from the adjacent neighborhoods to the south and east. Judson observed that the "tendency is for the intelligent, well-to-do and church-going people to withdraw from this part of the city". The park and the new church stood at the intersection between the affluence of Fifth Avenue and the poverty of Lower Manhattan.</p><br>
<p>The church was founded by Edward Judson who had been preaching at the Berean Baptist Church on Downing Street, also in the village, but his efforts at expanding the congregation were so successful that a new sanctuary was required. In 1888, with the backing of John D. Rockefeller and other prominent Baptists, construction of a new church south of the park was begun. Judson had chosen the location because he wanted to reach out to the neighboring communities. It was to be a memorial to Judson&#39;s father, Adoniram Judson, one of the first Protestant missionaries to Burma. The church building was designed by architect Stanford White, with stained glass windows by John La Farge. It features Renaissance influences wedded to a basic Italianate form. Sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens designed a marble frieze in the baptistery, which was carried out by Herbert Adams</p><br>
<p>As well as worship and religious education, the church offered health-care and outreach ministries to non-members as well as members. However, the church was not able to attract sufficient support from its wealthy neighbors on the north side of square, and by 1912, the church found itself in financial difficulties. The Baptist City Society (metropolitan association of Baptist churches) was persuaded to take over the property and financial responsibility, which it ended up holding until the congregation was again able to resume ownership and control in 1973.</p><br>
<h3>Early 20th century</h3><br>
<p>In 1921, under the leadership of its pastor, A. Ray Petty, the church offered first its basement and then rented its parish house on Thompson Street to Dr. Eleanor A. Campbell, a pioneering female physician who ran the Judson Health Center, a free medical and dental clinic. The center operated at 237 Thompson Street from 1922 to 1950, when the clinic moved to its present location on Spring Street in SoHo, the neighborhood to the south. During the 1920s, the church, with aid from the national American Baptist denomination, also ran the Judson Neighborhood House, a settlement house, at 179 Sullivan Street.</p><br>
<p>During the Great Depression in the early 20th century, Laurence Hosie served as pastor. Although the congregation dwindled, the church remained active in various social causes, including allowing homeless men to sleep on the pews at times. In 1937, the Baptist City Society appointed Renato Giacomelli Alden as pastor.</p><br>
<p>After World War II, with the rush of new students the former parish house and health center was turned into a residence for international students and students of various races, led by Dean R. Wright, the Baptist chaplain to New York University, the churchs neighbor. At the same time, a new pastor, Robert Spike, began theological explorations with veterans and the artists then working in the village, which brought a new group of congregants and led to a change in the churchs worship style to a more modern sensibility.</p><br>
<h3>Late 20th century</h3><br>
<p>In 1956, Howard Moody became the senior minister, continuing the churchs outspoken advocacy on issues of civil rights and free expression, as well as breaking with the confessedly evangelical understandings of the past by speaking out for issues once universally considered to be immoral by Christians (such as abortion and the decriminalization of prostitution), a policy that continues under the present leadership of the congregation. Al Carmines, the associate pastor 1962 to 1979, focused his ministry on the arts (see below). The congregation expanded during this period, allowing the church to take back control of its property from the citywide Baptist organization that had been acting as trustee until 1973. Following Moodys retirement in 1990, Peter Laarman became senior pastor. Coming from a background in union organizing, Laarman led the church into ministries dealing with economic issues, while continuing work with the arts and other social issues, and starting a multi-year program of restoration and renovation of the church&#39;s aging buildings.</p><br>
<p>Since becoming senior minister in 2005, senior pastor Donna Schaper has created a pioneering program to train future clergy in how to do "public ministry" from a congregational base, by providing part-time apprenticeships to seminarians and recent graduates. Also under her leadership, the church has taken a leadership role in the New Sanctuary Movement for immigrant rights.</p><br>
<h2>Mission</h2><br>
<p>The church&#39;s mission has long been self-described as being devoted to social outreach, and establishing programs designed to help those perceived to be in need, despite the controversial or sometimes, unpopular, nature of that help.</p><br>
<p>In the 1950s, the church was the first institution in the village to create a counseling program for drug addicts; in the 1960s, it led in helping to found the Clergy Consultation Service on Abortion, a nationwide network of Protestant and Jewish clergy who aided women who needed abortions before abortion became legal. In the 1970s, the church operated a residence for runaway teens and established a Professional Women&#39;s Clinic for women engaged in prostitution; in the 1980s, it helped provide medical resources for people with AIDS.</p><br>
<p>In the first decade of the 21st century, the churchs clergy operated a relief fund for the families of restaurant workers who were killed during the September 11, 2001, attacks of New York Citys World Trade Center. Now, the church is active in the New Sanctuary Movement for immigrant rights.</p><br>
<h3>Early community outreach</h3><br>
<p>Verne E. Henderson joined the Judson staff in 1952 as its first Director of Community Service. A program for youth of the village – started originally by the Police Athletic League of New York City – blossomed under Henderson&#39;s leadership with more than two hundred youth attending one or more weekly events. Many youth were hard-core delinquents and drug users. Henderson appeared in courts on behalf of those facing legal action and began summer youth programs in upstate New York and Vermont. Henderson also inaugurated programs for local artists, remodeling the sanctuary for art shows and refurbishing abandoned offices as living quarters for resident artists. Henderson once invited Martha Graham to use the sanctuary for dress rehearsals, which eventually led to formation of the Judson Dance Theatre.</p><br>
<h2>Sponsorship of the arts</h2><br>
<p>Beginning in the 1950s, the church supported a radical arts ministry, first led by associate pastor Bernard Scott and subsequently by associate pastor Al Carmines. The church made space available to artists for art exhibitions, rehearsals, and performances. The church also assured that this space was to be a place where these artists could have the freedom to experiment in their work without fear of censorship. In 1957, the church offered gallery space to Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine and Robert Rauschenberg, who were then unknown artists. In 1959, the Judson Gallery showed work by pop artists, Tom Wesselmann, Daniel Spoerri, and Red Grooms. Yoko Ono also had her work exhibited at the gallery. The gallery space housed Fluxus happenings, including Some Manipulations (1969), a series of performances at the Judson Church by Fluxus artists Jean Toche, Steve Young, Nam June Paik, and Al Hansen, and work by Nye Ffarrabas.</p><br>
<p>The Judson Dance Theater, which began in 1962, provided a venue for dancers and choreographers including Trisha Brown, Lucinda Childs, Steve Paxton, Deborah Hay, David Gordon and Yvonne Rainer to create and show their work. Among others, these dancers and choreographers shaped dance history by creating postmodern dance, the first avant-garde movement in dance theater since the modern dance of the 1930s and 1940s. For the past several decades, Movement Research has presented concerts of experimental dance at the church on Monday evenings during the academic year.</p><br>
<p>In the 1970s, the church hosted various art shows and multimedia events. Most notable among these multimedia events was the People&#39;s Flag Show in November 1970, a six-day exhibition of painting and sculpture on the theme of the American flag. The exhibit and the accompanying symposium, featuring speeches by Abbie Hoffman and Kate Millett, attracted widespread attention from the public, the press and the police. During the final days of the exhibit, three of the contributing artists were arrested, both pastors (Moody and Carmines) were issued summons (not followed up), and the District Attorney closed the exhibit on charges of desecration of the American flag.</p><br>
<p>The Judson Poets Theatre started in November 1961 – with a play by poet Joel Oppenheimer – as one of three off-off-Broadway venues (the others were Caffe Cino and La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club). Experimental plays and musicals by later-famous authors and directors, including Sam Shepherd, Lanford Wilson and Tom OHorgan, were presented in the church&#39;s main Meeting Room. Starting in the late 1960s, Carmines began writing and producing his own musicals, and later, "oratorios" that used large volunteer choruses. Especially notable were several shows using texts by Gertrude Stein, music by Carmines, with direction by the Judson Poets Theatre director Lawrence Kornfeld.</p><br>
<p>In the 1980s, the church sponsored various Politically intended dramatic performances, such as those by the Vermont-based Bread and Puppet Theater. These performances included Insurrection Opera and Oratorio, performed in February and March 1984. In this performance, the Bread and Puppet Theater, under the direction of its founder, Peter Schumann, used opera and the companys now signature oversized puppets to convey an anti-nuclear message. The church has recently become the home of the West Village Chorale, directed by Dr. Colin Britt. The Chorales former home was St. Luke&#39;s in the Fields on Hudson Street.</p><br>
<p>The church celebrated its centennial in 1990 with performances and symposia involving many of the artists who had been involved with the arts ministry in the 1960s and 1970s. It continues both its support of the arts and its social outreach to the community.</p><br>
<h2>Building</h2><br>
<p>The church building is located at 54–57 Washington Square South. In addition to La Farges stained-glass windows and Saint-Gaudenss marble frieze, it features Italian Renaissance influences wedded to a basic Italianate form, and has notable examples of scagliola, a very convincing handcrafted imitation of marble made of highly polished pigmented plaster. Overall, the exterior and shape of the building is said to resemble the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, Italy, while the entrance is said to be inspired by the Renaissance church San Alessandro, built in Lucca, Italy, in 1480. The fourteen stained glass windows in the church&#39;s main sanctuary are the largest collection of major LaFarge windows in any one place in the USA</p><br>
<p>The campanile tower, located at 51–54 Washington Square South to the west of the church itself, was built in 1895–96, after the sanctuary had been completed, and was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. The adjacent Hall, however, predates the church, having been built in 1877, and was designed by John G. Prague.</p><br>
<p>In 1999, facing financial difficulties, the churchs board of trustees sold the Judson House, the parish building behind the church, to New York University School of Law, which used the site for its new Furman Hall. At eleven stories tall, the new building now towers over the church and Washington Square Park beyond, causing considerable controversy in the community at the time of its construction. The churchs offices and a small assembly hall now occupy a condominium suite in one corner of the new building, adjacent to the main church, at 239 Thompson Street.</p><br>
<p>From 1990 to 2006, the church building was repainted, reroofed; the stained glass windows were cleaned and reinstalled by Cummings Studio; an elevator was installed to make the building accessible and air conditioning was added. These projects exhausted all the proceeds from the sale of the back lots, plus approximately $1 million additional (equivalent to million in ), raised from contributions of arts patrons and the congregation.</p><br>
<h2>Ministers and staff</h2><br>
<p>Rev. Edward Judson (minister, 1890–1914)</p><br>
<p>Rev. A. Ray Petty (minister, 1915–1926)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Laurence T. Hosie (minister, 1926–1937)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Renato Giacomelli Alden (minister to Italian-speaking congregation, 1937–1946; sole minister after Hosie&#39;s departure)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Elbert R. Tingley (City Society&#39;s appointed executive director for Judson, 1946–1948)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Dean Wright (Director, Judson House Student Program, 1948–1952)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Robert Spike (minister, 1949–1955)</p><br>
<p>Verne E Henderson, Director of Community Service during Spike&#39;s ministry (1952–1955)</p><br>
<p>Bernard (Bud) Scott (seminary intern under Spike; associate minister under Moody, 1957–1960), serving as missionary to the surrounding artistic community</p><br>
<p>Rev. Howard Moody (minister, 1956–1992)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Al Carmines (associate minister, 1961–1981)</p><br>
<p>Arthur A. Levin (Director of The Center for Medical Consumers, since 1976; also, administration for many church-related projects since 1966, including the Judson Teenage Arts Workshop, Judson mobile health project, and Judson Runaway House)</p><br>
<p>Arlene Carmen ("administrix" 1967–1994; "administrix" over those years encompassed first being Moody&#39;s secretary, then Church Administrator, and finally, in the mid-1980s, Program Associate was added to the Administrator title)</p><br>
<p>Roland Wiggins (sexton, mid-1970s-2016)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Dr. Lee Hancock (associate minister, 1981–1985)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Dr. Bill Malcomson (interim minister, 1992–1994)</p><br>
<p>Andrew Frantz (Sunday School Director, since 1993)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Peter Laarman (minister, 1994–2004)</p><br>
<p>Ryan Gillam (Special Program Associate for theatre, 1994–1996)</p><br>
<p>Aziza (Special Program Associate, 1993–2002) (producer for Licks n Licks, Single Mothers Workshop, Dance of African Descent Downtown)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Louise Green (associate minister, 1996–1998)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Karen Senecal (associate minister; sole minister after Laarman, 2000–2005)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Dr. Donna Schaper (senior minister, 2006-2021)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Michael Ellick (assistant minister, 2008–2014)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Dr. Valerie Holly (assistant minister, 2015-2020; associate minister, 2020-2023)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Julie Johnson Staples (transition minister, 2021-2023)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Micah Bucey (minister since 2011; senior minister since 2023)</p><br>
<p>SS. Cyril and Methodius Seminary was a four-year private Polish seminary in Orchard Lake, Michigan, United States. The seminary, taking its name from Saints Cyril and Methodius, was founded in 1885 in Detroit, Michigan, to prepare candidates for the Roman Catholic priesthood primarily to serve Polish American immigrant communities.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>Approval for founding such a seminary was granted on January 14, 1879, by Pope Leo XIII upon the petition of Father Leopold Moczygemba, a Conventual Franciscan, founder of the Polish settlement in Panna Maria, Texas, in 1854.</p><br>
<p>The establishment of the seminary was realized by Father Joseph Dabrowski, the first rector, who obtained approval from Bishop Caspar Borgess of Detroit for constructing a building on St. Aubin Avenue between Forest Avenue and Garfield Street and organizing the seminary program.</p><br>
<h2>The move to Orchard Lake</h2><br>
<p>Increasing enrollment and the need for additional space led the second rector, Father Witold Buchaczkowski, to transfer the seminary in 1909 from Detroit to the site of the former Michigan Military Academy in the rural village of Orchard Lake, northwest of Detroit.</p><br>
<h2>The early program</h2><br>
<p>The original academic program of the seminary consisted of ten years of studies: five in the preparatory classical department and five in the upper division, namely, two in philosophy and three in theology. In 1927, three four-year administratively independent schools were established: SS. Cyril and Methodius Seminary, St. Marys College, and St. Marys Preparatory, known collectively at present as the Orchard Lake Schools.</p><br>
<h2>Current academic programs</h2><br>
<p>In 1968, the Seminary began to provide a training program for permanent deacons, field education for seminarians, and continuing education for adults. In the ensuing years, the following degree programs were introduced: Master of Divinity (1973) for priesthood candidates, religious, and lay women and men; Master of Religious Education (1977), later designated as Master of Arts in Religious Education (1989); and Master of Arts in Pastoral Ministry (1989), an upgrading of the Certificate in Pastoral Ministry, which had been in existence since 1975.</p><br>
<h2>Accreditation</h2><br>
<p>In 1971, SS. Cyril and Methodius Seminary became an associate member of the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada (ATS). In 1992 the seminary was granted candidacy for accredited status in the association and undertook a two-year self-study as part of the process leading toward accreditation. SS. Cyril and Methodius Seminary was granted initial accreditation by ATS in January, 1995.</p><br>
<h2>Some of the graduates (diocese)</h2><br>
<p>Rev. Tomasz Golab (2018, Biloxi, MS)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Adrian Frackowiak (2019, Manchester, NH)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Witold Kaczmarzyk (2019, Denver, CO)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Marcin S. Wiktor (2018, Biloxi, MS)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Imad Al-Banna (2020, Michigan, MI)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Paweł Łuczak (2020, Springfield, IL)</p><br>
<p>Ladds Addition is an inner southeast historic district of Portland, Oregon, United States. It is Portlands oldest planned residential development, and one of the oldest in the western United States. The district is known in Portland for a diagonal street pattern, which is at odds with the rectilinear grid of the surrounding area. Roughly eight blocks  by ten blocks  in size , Ladd&#39;s is bordered by SE Hawthorne, Division, 12th, and 20th streets. It is part of the Hosford-Abernethy neighborhood association.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Ladd&#39;s Addition is named after William S. Ladd, a merchant and mid-19th-century Portland mayor who owned a 126 acre farm on the land.</p><br>
<p>The homes in the district, mostly developed between 1905 and 1930 (after Ladd&#39;s death), have been called a "architecturally rich mix of compatible early 20th century styles," notable for their "continuity of scale, setback, orientation, and materials." Architectural styles represented include bungalow, craftsman, American Foursquare, Mission, Tudor, and Colonial Revival.</p><br>
<p>Development started at the north end, closest to the streetcar transportation, with the largest homes built between 1905 and 1915.</p><br>
<p>Though the earliest deeds excluded Japanese and Chinese residents, except as servants, after those covenants expired, Ladds Addition was one of the few areas by 1939 informally designated as open to oriental&#39; families.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The narrow streets of Ladds Addition are lined with American Elm trees. The Save Our Elms organization inoculates the elm trees yearly against Dutch elm disease. Each of the four smaller, diamond-shaped "circles" to the east, west, north, and south contains one of Portlands rose test gardens. Friends of Ladd&#39;s Addition Gardens regularly solicits money and volunteers to maintain the rose gardens. Ladd named most of the streets after trees, but he named SE Ladd Avenue and SE Elliott Avenue for himself and his wife, who was born Caroline Elliott.</p><br>
<h2>Historic preservation</h2><br>
<p>The area was designated a historic district by the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.</p><br>
<p>Old Saint Paul&#39;s Cemetery is a cemetery located in downtown Baltimore, Maryland, United States. It is noted for the several important historical figures that are interred in its grounds.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first cemetery of Saint Pauls Church (Protestant Episcopal) in Baltimore was located at the future intersection of Sollers Road and North Point Road in what is now the area of Dundalk in southeastern Baltimore County. The original small church of St. Pauls Parish of the established Church of England was one of the "Original Thirty" parishes designated for the colonial Province of Maryland and was founded in 1692 and considered to be one of the oldest churches in the State. In 1730, the Parish Church of St. Paul&#39;s was moved from near Colgate Creek on the "Patapsco Neck" peninsula to the new burgeoning town of Baltimore overlooking "The Basin" at the head of the Patapsco River on its Northwest Branch, and Lot #19 was purchased in the "Original Survey" of that year by county surveyor Phillip Jones from Charles Carroll of Annapolis.</p><br>
<p>As the designated parish for the new Baltimore County, which then included most of northeastern Maryland when it was "erected" (established) in 1659, the first St. Paul&#39;s was located around the vicinity of the lower Colgate Creek which flowed into the Patapsco River and is assumed that the cemetery would be located somewhere nearby. The church site was probably in the area of the future aviation sites of "Logan Field", "Baltimore Municipal Airport" (later known as "Harbor Field" after World War II), and now the grounds of the "Dundalk Marine Terminal" and "Sea Girt Marine Terminal" of the facilities for the Port of Baltimore Laid out in 1692, along with the Parish, this churchyard is the oldest cemetery that is known to have existed in the Baltimore metropolitan area.</p><br>
<p>About 1760, those remains were exhumed and moved to the new Saint Pauls Burial Ground which surrounded the original church, which was the first building in the new town to be built of brick and completed after 9 years of work in 1739 at Forest Street (now North Charles Street) and the intersecting east–west lane which later became East Saratoga Street after the American Revolution to commemorate the famous "turning point" battle in 1777 along the Hudson River in New York State. To the east lay the Jones Falls Bluffs which stood from 1739 to 1817, over the southwestward "loop" of the stream before its course was further north. Below the cliffs was another lane which was named for the church as "Saint Pauls Lane" (to become St. Paul Street and in the southern portion after construction of the terraced "Preston Gardens" in the 1920s, became known as Saint Paul Place. To the south at the then limit of the lot was laid out New Church Street which later became East and West Lexington Streets (also after the Revolution), one block south of the later church buildings. That building was replaced by another in (1812, 1813–17?) of Greek Revival design by famous local architect Robert Cary Long, Jr. which burned in 1854 and was later replaced by the present building in 1856 which fills that entire property, at the current intersection of North Charles and East Saratoga Streets.</p><br>
<p>In the late 18th century, the Vestry of Old St. Paul&#39;s Church was faced with the need for a third cemetery. Cemeteries had never been viewed as good neighbors, aside from the fact that they contained the bodies and souls of the departed (who, it was believed, had the ability to wander the land), they could become unsightly and even unhealthy.</p><br>
<p>Therefore, a new cemetery site was purchased in 1800 on the western edge of town. This site is bordered on the west by Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard (Cove Street at the time of purchase, later Fremont Avenue), Lombard Street on the south, and Redwood Street (formerly German Street) on the north. Several members of the Vestry owned a great deal of undeveloped property in this area.</p><br>
<p>Church member Samuel Smythe purchased 2.8 acres (11,000 m) of land from the heirs of Alexander Robinson, whose house is found on the 1802 "Hanna and Warner" map of Baltimore, directly across German Street from the Smythe purchase. The land was subsequently bought by the Church. Many of the parishioners immediately bought grave lots and began construction of vaults and plots.</p><br>
<p>When Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard was constructed, during the mid-1980s, one end of this cemetery was lost on the west side and the remains and markers were moved within the remaining walled cemetery that now sits surrounded by the University of Maryland, Baltimore campus.</p><br>
<h2>Persons of note interred</h2><br>
<p>George Armistead (1780–1818) – Brevet lieutenant colonel, USA Army; commander of Fort McHenry at the Battle of Baltimore during the War of 1812</p><br>
<p>Lewis Armistead (1817–1863) – Confederate brigadier general during the Civil War; nephew of George Armistead. Wounded during Pickett&#39;s Charge at Gettysburg, died two days later.</p><br>
<p>James Carroll (1791–1873) – US Congressman. Elected to represent Maryland&#39;s 4th District in the United States House of Representatives, serving from 1839 to 1841</p><br>
<p>Samuel Chase (1741–1811) – Signer of The Declaration of Independence from Maryland, Former Supreme Court Associate Justice, known as "Old Bacon Face"</p><br>
<p>Jacob G. Davies (1795–1857), Mayor of Baltimore</p><br>
<p>George Howard (1789–1846) – Governor of Maryland (1831–1833)</p><br>
<p>John Eager Howard (1752–1827) – Revolutionary War Continental Army Officer, Continental Congressman, Governor of Maryland (1788–1791), Senator; father of George Howard</p><br>
<p>Francis Scott Key (1779–1843) – Witness to the Battle of Baltimore during the War of 1812; writer of "The Star-Spangled Banner", later the national anthem. Cenotaph; reburied at Mount Olivet Cemetery in Frederick, Maryland, 1866</p><br>
<p>Alexander Reinagle (1756–1809) – composer, known as the "Master of Music"</p><br>
<p>Ginter Park is a suburban neighborhood of Richmond, Virginia built on land owned and developed by Lewis Ginter. The neighborhood&#39;s first well known resident was newspaperman Joseph Bryan, who lived in Laburnum, first built in 1883 and later rebuilt. In 1895, many acres of land north of Richmond were purchased by Ginter in order to develop into neighborhoods. Ginter Park and other neighborhoods were developed from this initial land purchase. In Ginter Park are Union Presbyterian Seminary and as well as Pollard Park.</p><br>
<p>Nearby are the Children&#39;s Hospital of Richmond and John Marshall High School.</p><br>
<p>While the borders of North Side are not exact, nearby North Side neighborhoods include Barton Heights, Highland Park, Laburnum Park, Sherwood Park and Bellevue.</p><br>
<p>The Ginter Park Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986.</p><br>
<p>Johnson Wax Headquarters is the world headquarters and administration building of S. C. Johnson & Son in Racine, Wisconsin. Designed by American architect Frank Lloyd Wright for the companys president, Herbert F. "Hib" Johnson, the building was constructed from 1936 to 1939. Its distinctive "lily pad" columns and other innovations revived Wrights career at a point when he was losing influence. Also known as the Johnson Wax Administration Building, it and the nearby 14-story Johnson Wax Research Tower , also by Wright, were designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1976 as Administration Building and Research Tower, S.C. Johnson and Son. The Tower portion currently serves as a museum of Wright&#39;s design and company history, periodically open for public tours.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>The Johnson Wax Headquarters were in an industrial zone, and Wright decided to create a sealed environment lit from above, as he had done with the Larkin Administration Building. The building features Wrights interpretation of the streamlined Art Moderne style popular in the 1930s. In a break with his earlier Prairie School structures, the building features many curvilinear forms and required over 200 different curved "Racine Red" bricks to create the sweeping curves of the interior and exterior. The mortar between the bricks is raked in traditional Wright style to accentuate the horizontality of the building. The warm, reddish hue of the bricks was used in the polished concrete floor slab as well; the white stone trim and white dendriform (tree-like) columns create a subtle yet striking contrast. All of the furniture, manufactured by Steelcase, was designed for the building by Wright and it echoed many of the buildings design features.</p><br>
<p>The entrance is within the structure, penetrating the building on one side with a covered carport on the other. The carport is supported by short versions of the steel-reinforced dendriform concrete columns that appear in the Great Workroom. The low carport ceiling creates a compression of space that is released when entering the main building, where the dendriform columns rise over two stories tall; the interior space thus appears larger than it is. Compression and release of space were concepts that Wright used in many of his designs, including the playroom in his Oak Park Home and Studio, the Unity Temple in Oak Park, Illinois, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City, and many others.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the Great Workroom, which has no internal walls, the thin, white dendriform columns rise to circular "lily pad" tops that form the ceiling, with the spaces between the circles consisting of skylights made of Pyrex glass tubing. At the corners, where the walls usually meet the ceiling, the glass tubes continue up and over and connect to the skylights, creating a clerestory effect and admitting a soft light. The Great Workroom is the largest expanse of space in the building, and was intended for the secretaries of the Johnson Wax company, with a mezzanine for administrators.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>In the Great Workroom, the columns expand from 9 inches (23 cm) in diameter at the bottom to "lily pads" 18 feet (5.5 m) in diameter at the top; skeptical building inspectors required that a test column be built and loaded with twelve tons of material. After the test column proved capable of supporting the specified load, Wright had the load progressively increased. Only at sixty tons load did any crack appear.</p><br>
<p>The building was completed in 1939, considerably over-budget. It proved very difficult to properly seal the glass tubing of the clerestories and roof, and leaks occurred. The problem was not solved until the company replaced the top layers of tubes with skylights consisting of angled sheets of fiberglass and specially molded sheets of Plexiglas with painted dark lines to resemble the original joints in a trompe-l&#39;œil when viewed from the ground.</p><br>
<p>Wright designed not only the building but its furniture. His chair design originally had only three legs, supposedly to encourage better posture (because one would have to keep both feet on the ground at all times to sit in it). However, the chair proved unstable, tipping very easily. Purportedly, Wright redesigned the chairs after Herbert Johnson asked him to sit in one, and he fell out of it. Johnson Wax has continued to use Wright&#39;s furniture.</p><br>
<p>Despite these problems, Johnson was pleased with the building and later commissioned the Research Tower and a house (known as Wingspread) from Wright.</p><br>
<h2>Research Tower</h2><br>
<p>The Research Tower was added in 1950 to the Administration Building, and provides a vertical counterpoint to its horizontality. It is one of only two existing high-rise buildings by Wright. Cantilevered from a giant stack, the towers floor slabs spread out like tree branches, providing for vertical segmentation of departments. Elevator and stairway channels run up the reinforced concrete core, which Wright called a tap root. This single core was based on an idea that he had proposed in 1929 for the St. Marks Tower, and which he used again in 1952 in the Price Tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. Freed from peripheral supporting elements, the tower rises from a garden and three fountain pools that surround its base while a court on three sides provides parking for employees.</p><br>
<p>The Research Tower was taken out of use in 1980 because it no longer met fire safety codes; it only has a single 29-inch wide twisting staircase, and originally had no sprinklers because Wright thought they were ugly. SC Johnson considered proposals to retrofit the tower to meet these codes, including one submitted by apprentices from Taliesin, but all were ultimately rejected out of concern it would mar the appearance of the tower. The company is committed to preserving it as a symbol of its history. In 2013, an extensive 12-month restoration was completed. The tower was relit on December 21, 2013, to mark the winter solstice, and S.C. Johnson & Son announced that it would be opened for public tours for the first time in its history. The research labs shown on the tour have been set up to appear frozen in time, including beakers, scales, centrifuges, archival photographs and letters about the building.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>The Johnson Wax buildings are on the National Register of Historic Places, and the Administration Building and the Research Tower were chosen by the American Institute of Architects as two of seventeen buildings by the architect to be retained as examples of his contribution to American culture. In addition, in 1974 the Administration Building was awarded a Twenty-Five Year Award by the American Institute of Architects and in 1976, both were designated National Historic Landmarks.</p><br>
<p>The Middlesex Canal was a 27-mile  barge canal connecting the Merrimack River with the port of Boston. When operational it was 30 feet  wide, and 3 feet  deep, with 20 locks, each 80 feet  long and between 10 and 11 feet  wide. It also had eight aqueducts.</p><br>
<p>Built from 1793 to 1803, the canal was one of the first civil engineering projects of its type in the United States, and was studied by engineers working on other major canal projects such as the Erie Canal. A number of innovations made the canal possible, including hydraulic cement, which was used to mortar its locks, and an ingenious floating towpath to span the Concord River. The canal operated until 1851, when more efficient means of transportation of bulk goods, largely railroads, meant it was no longer competitive.</p><br>
<p>In 1967, the canal was designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Remnants of the canal still survive and were the subject of a 1972 listing on the National Register of Historic Places, while the entire route, including parts that have been overbuilt, is the subject of a second listing in 2009.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Conception</h3><br>
<p>By 1790, England had thirty years and all of continental Europe&#39;s many canals to draw on for the experience. In the years after the American Revolutionary War, the young United States began a period of economic expansion away from the coast. American men of influence had always kept an eye on news from Europe, especially from Great Britain, so when in the years from 1790–1794 the British Parliament passed eighty-one canal and navigation acts, American leaders were paying attention.</p><br>
<p>Because of extremely poor roads, the cost of bringing goods such as lumber, ashes, grain, and fur to the coast could be quite high if water transport was unavailable. Most American rivers were made unnavigable by rapids and waterfalls. Up and down the Atlantic coast, companies were formed to build canals as cheaper ways to move goods between the interior of the country and the coast. Well aware that to stay independent the nation needed to grow strong and develop industries, the news from Europe rekindled a number of previously dropped canal or navigations projects and began discussions leading in the next decades to many others. The year 1790 is credited as the start of the American Canal Age.</p><br>
<p>In Massachusetts, several ideas were proposed for bringing goods to the principal port, Boston, and connecting to the interior.Roberts, Chapters I and Chapter II For about three years there were plans to connect the upper reaches of the Connecticut River, above the falls at Enfield Connecticut, to Boston through a canal to the Charles. Connecticut was believed to rise at similar elevations to the Merrimack River&#39;s, which could be reached by a string of streams, ponds, lakes, and manmade canals—if the canals were built. In the first two years, rough surveys sought the best route up to the Connecticut Valley; but no route was obviously best, and nobody championed a specific one. A few true believers, but lesser socialites, needed a champion and pestered the Secretary of War, Henry Knox to ignite the project. After the collapse of stocks in early 1793 put paid to a scheme to join the Charles River with Connecticut, championed by Henry Knox, a group of leading Massachusetts businessmen and politicians led by States Attorney General James Sullivan proposed a connection from the Merrimack River to Boston Harbor in 1793. This became the Middlesex (County) Canal system.</p><br>
<p>The Middlesex Canal Corporation was chartered on June 22, 1793, with a signature by Governor John Hancock, who purchased shares with other political figures including John Adams, John Quincy Adams, James Sullivan, and Christopher Gore. The incorporators were James Sullivan; Oliver Prescott; James Winthrop; Loammi Baldwin; Benjamin Hall; Jonathan Porter; Andrew Hall; Ebenezer Hall; Samuel Tufts Jr. Willis Hall; Samuel Swan Jr. and Ebenezer Hall Jr. Sullivan was made the company&#39;s president; its vice president and eventually chief engineer was Loammi Baldwin, a native of Woburn, who had attended science lectures at Harvard College and was a friend of physicist Benjamin Thompson.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>The route of the canal was first surveyed in August 1793. Local lore is that it is on this expedition that Baldwin was introduced to a particular apple variety that now bears his name. The route survey, however, was sufficiently uncertain that a second survey was made in October. Due to discrepancies in their results, Baldwin was authorized by the proprietors to travel to Philadelphia in an effort to secure the services of William Weston, a British engineer working on several canal and turnpike projects in Pennsylvania under contract to the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company. Baldwins application to the Navigation company was successful: Weston was authorized to travel to Massachusetts. In July and August 1794, Weston, accompanied by Baldwin and several of the latters sons surveyed and identified two possible routes for the proposed canal. The proprietors then secured contracts to acquire the land for the canal, some of which was donated by its owners; in sixteen cases the proprietors used eminent domain proceedings to take the land.</p><br>
<p>The basic plan was for the canal&#39;s principal water source to be the Concord River at its highest point in North Billerica, with additional water to be drawn as needed from Horn Pond in Woburn. The site where the canal met the Concord River had been the site of a grist mill since the 17th century, which the proprietors purchased along with all of its water rights. From this point, the canal descended six miles to the Merrimack River in East Chelmsford (now western Lowell) and 22 miles to the Charles River in Charlestown.</p><br>
<p>In late September 1794 ground was broken in North Billerica. Work on the canal was performed by a number of contractors. In some instances, local workers were contracted to dig sections, while in other areas contract labor was brought in from Massachusetts and New Hampshire for the construction work. A variety of engineering challenges were overcome, leading to innovations in construction materials and equipment. A form of hydraulic cement (made in part from volcanic materials imported at great expense from Sint Eustatius in the West Indies) was used to make the stone locks watertight. Because of its cost and the cost of working in stone, a number of the locks were made of wood instead. An innovation was made in earth-moving equipment with the development of a precursor of the dump truck, where one side of the carrier was hinged to allow the rapid dumping of material at the desired location.</p><br>
<p>Water was diverted into the canal in December 1800, and by 1803 the canal was filled to Charlestown. The first boat operated on part of the canal on April 22, 1802.</p><br>
<h3>Merrimack canals</h3><br>
<p>A variety of enterprises by all or a few of "the proprietors of the Middlesex Canal" which were the corporations&#39; principal stockholders and the board came together with other third parties or acted in a few cases as a combined whole to fund the development of other stretches of the canal up the Merrimack above Chelmsford. By the completion of construction between Medford and Chelmsford, several extensions envisioned all along were also nearing completion. The whole system was complete in 1814, and with just a few exceptions, overall came to operate with prices and regulations as set by the proprietors of the (main) Middlesex Canal. The following extensions opened up the balance of the Merrimack River to the New Hampshire capital, Concord, which acted as a staging point for riverine traffic deep into the river system penetrating the White and Green Mountains of New Hampshire and Vermont respectively.</p><br>
<h3>Operation</h3><br>
<p>By 1808 the completed canal had reached Merrimack, New Hampshire, from the Charles (the downstream terminus) and was carrying two-thirds of the down freight and one-third of the up freight to Western New Hampshire and Eastern Vermont. The other direction, the canal ran from Middlesex Village or East Chelmsford, Massachusetts (The Town of Chelmsford was later divided and East Chelmsford was renamed Lowell, Massachusetts, now the fourth most populous city in Massachusetts, primarily because of the Lowell textile industry spawned by the transportation infrastructure and water power along the Middlesex Canal and the Nashua and Merrimack Rivers), through several sparser settled Middlesex County outlier suburbs such as Billerica, and Tewksbury, then closer-in suburban towns with the lower course running towards Boston generally along water courses nearly paralleling the routes of MA 38 from Wilmington, thence in Woburn along the Aberjona River from Horn Pond through Winchester (or Waterfield) into the Mystic Lakes and down the Mystic River between Arlington and Somerville on the west bank and Medford along the east (left) bank, until the river and canal ran into the Boston Harbor tidewater in the Charlestown basin.</p><br>
<p>At first, it terminated in Medford, but was later extended to Charlestown, Massachusetts, with a branch near Medford Center to the Mystic River. Over time, the canal was connected to by a series of other canal companies, and many of those were owned in part by the canal proprietors, which constructed spurs up through New Hampshire upstream along the Nashua and Merrimack Rivers, enabling freight to be transported as far inland as Concord, New Hampshire. Within two years of commencing operations, regular boat traffic operated by independent companies was reaching upriver over 50 mi. Three main companies operated on the canal system. The water source for the canal was the Concord River at North Billerica. This was also the highest point of the canal and is the present location of the Middlesex Canal Association&#39;s museum.</p><br>
<p>Freight boats required 18 hours from Boston up to Lowell, and 12 hours down, thus averaging 2.5 miles per hour; passenger boats were faster, at 12 and 8 hours, respectively (4 miles per hour). As seen on later American canals, use was not restricted to freight and transit: people from the city would ride passenger boats on daylong tourism excursions to the countryside and take vacations in luxuriously fitted out canal boats, whole families spending a week or two lazing along the waterways in the heat of summer.</p><br>
<p>Freight statistics compiled for twenty years cited in the Harvard Economic study by Roberts indicate the downriver trips from Concord to Boston took four days, and the reverse trip upriver took on average five days. A round trip between Boston and Concord, New Hampshire, usually took 7–10 days. These speed limits were set and maintained by the board of proprietors to prevent wakes from damaging the canal sides. Roberts noted they were unlikely to be enforced, and generation of a shore damaging wake would require sails or animals to drive a canal boat in excess of 7 mph, which would require dangerously stiff breezes in the correct direction.</p><br>
<p>The canal was one of the main thoroughfares in eastern New England until a few decades after the advent of the railroad. The Boston and Lowell Railroad (now a part of the MBTA Commuter Rail system) was built using the plans from the original surveys for the canal. Portions of the line follow the canal route closely, and the canal was used to transport construction materials and also an engine for the railroad.</p><br>
<p>The canal was no longer economically viable after the introduction of railroad competition, and the company collected its last tolls in 1851. The Middlesex Turnpike, incorporated in 1805, also contributed to its downfall. Investors who held their shares in the company lost money: shareholders invested a total of $740 per share but only reaped $559.50 in dividends. Those who sold their shares at an appropriate time made money: shares valued at $25 in 1794 reached a value of $500 in 1804 and were worth $300 in 1816.</p><br>
<p>Before the corporation was dissolved, the proprietors proposed to convert the canal into an aqueduct to bring drinking water to Boston, but this effort was unsuccessful. After the canal ceased operation its infrastructure quickly fell into disrepair. In 1852 the company ordered dilapidated bridges over the canal torn down and the canal underneath filled in. Permission was given for the company to liquidate and pay the proceeds to the stockholders, and its 1793 charter was revoked in 1860. The companys records were given over to the state for preservation. The canal corporations land and dam in North Billerica, as well as the water rights on the Concord River, were sold to Charles and Thomas Talbot, who erected the Talbot Mills complex that now stands in the Billerica Mills Historic District.</p><br>
<p>Parts of the canal bed were covered by roads in the 20th century, including parts of the Mystic Valley Parkway in Medford and Winchester, and parts of Boston Avenue in Somerville and Medford. Boston Avenue crosses the Mystic River where the canal did. Parts of the canal in eastern Somerville were filled in by leveling Ploughed Hill in the late 19th century. Ploughed Hill was the site of notorious anti-Catholic riots in 1832 and had subsequently been abandoned.</p><br>
<h3>Impact</h3><br>
<p>The opening of the canal diminished the commercial viability of the port of Newburyport, Massachusetts, the outlet of the Merrimack River, since all trade from the Merrimack Valley in New Hampshire now went via the canal to Boston, rather than through the sometimes difficult to navigate river.</p><br>
<p>The canal also played a prominent role in the eventual growth of Lowell as a major industrial center. Its opening brought on a decline in business at the Pawtucket Canal, a transit canal opened in the 1790s which bypassed the Pawtucket Falls just downstream from the Middlesex Canal&#39;s northern end. Its owners converted the Pawtucket Canal for use as a power provider, leading to the growth of the mill businesses on its banks beginning in the 1820s. The Middlesex Canal was used for the transport of raw materials, finished goods, and personnel to and from Lowell.</p><br>
<p>The canal&#39;s use of the Concord River had significant long-term environmental consequences. The raising of the dam height at North Billerica was believed to cause flooding of seasonal hay meadows upstream and prompted numerous lawsuits against the canal proprietors. These were all ultimately unsuccessful, due in part to the uncertainty of the science, and also in part to the political power of the proprietors. As the canal was in decline in its later years, the state legislature finally ordered the dam height to be lowered, but then repealed the order before it was executed. Analysis done in the 20th century suggests that the dam, which still stands (although no longer at its greatest height), probably had a flooding effect on hay meadows as far as 25 miles up the watershed. Many of these meadows had to be abandoned, and some now form portions of the Great Meadows National Wildlife Refuge; they are classified as wetlands.</p><br>
<p>The canal featured a number of innovations and was referred to as an example for later engineering projects. The use of hydraulic cement to mortar the locks is the first known use of the material in North America. The route was surveyed using a Wye level (an early version of a dumpy level), again the first recorded use in America. At North Billerica, where the canal met the Concord River at the millpond, a floating towpath was devised to handle the needs of crossing traffic patterns.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Though significant portions of the Middlesex Canal are still visible, urban and suburban sprawl is quickly overcoming many of the remains. The Middlesex Canal Association, founded in 1962, has erected markers along portions of the canal&#39;s path. Prominent portions of the canal that are still visible include water-filled portions in Wilmington, Billerica, and near the Baldwin House in Woburn. Dry walkable sections can be found in Winchester, most notably a section at the Mystic Lakes where an aqueduct was situated, and Wilmington, where aqueduct remnants are also visible in the town park off Route 38. Most of the canal south of Winchester has been overbuilt by roads and residential construction, although traces may still be discerned in a few places.</p><br>
<p>In 1967 the canal was designated a Historic Civil Engineering Landmark (one of the first such designations made) by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The surviving elements of the canal are the subject of a 1972 listing on the National Register of Historic Places, while the entire route, including parts that have been overbuilt, is the subject of a second listing in 2009.</p><br>
<p>The Middlesex Canal Association maintains a museum in North Billerica, Massachusetts, at the Faulkner Mills. Directions and additional information are available on the Middlesex Canal Association website.</p><br>
<p>Rock Creek Cemetery is an 86 acre cemetery with a natural and rolling landscape located at Rock Creek Church Road, NW, and Webster Street, NW, off Hawaii Avenue, NE, in the Petworth neighborhood of Washington, D.C., across the street from the historic Soldiers Home and the Soldiers Home Cemetery. It also is home to the InterFaith Conference of Metropolitan Washington.</p><br>
<p>On August 12, 1977, Rock Creek Cemetery and the adjacent church grounds were listed on the National Register of Historic Places as Rock Creek Church Yard and Cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery was first established in 1719 in the British colonial Province of Maryland as a churchyard within the glebe of St. Paul&#39;s Episcopal Church within the Rock Creek Parish. Later, the vestry decided to expand the burial ground as a public cemetery to serve the city of Washington, D.C., which had acquired the cemetery within its boundaries as established in 1791. The cemetery was formally recognized and established through an Act of Congress in 1840.</p><br>
<p>An expanded cemetery was landscaped in the rural garden style, to function as both a cemetery and a public park. It is a ministry of St. Pauls Episcopal Church, Rock Creek Parish, with sections for St. Johns Russian Orthodox Church and St. Nicholas Orthodox Cathedral.</p><br>
<p>The park-like setting of Rock Creek Cemetery has several notable mausoleums, sculptures, and tombstones. The best known is the Adams Memorial, a contemplative, androgynous bronze sculpture seated before a block of granite that was created by Augustus Saint-Gaudens and Stanford White. It marks the graves of Marian Hooper Adams and her husband, Henry Adams, and sometimes, mistakenly, the sculpture is referred to as Grief. Saint-Gaudens entitled it The Mystery of the Hereafter and The Peace of God that Passeth Understanding.</p><br>
<p>Other notable memorials include the Frederick Keep Monument, the Heurich Mausoleum, the Hitt Monument, the Hardon Monument, the Kauffman Monument that is known as The Seven Ages of Memory, the Sherwood Mausoleum Door, and the Thompson-Harding Monument.</p><br>
<h2>Sculptors of works in the cemetery</h2><br>
<p>Gutzon Borglum, Rabboni, 1909</p><br>
<p>James Earle Fraser, Frederick Keep Monument, 1920</p><br>
<p>Laura Gardin Fraser, Hitt Memorial, 1931</p><br>
<p>William Ordway Partridge, Kauffmann Memorial, also known as Seven Ages or Memory, 1897</p><br>
<p>Brenda Putnam, Simon Memorial, 1917</p><br>
<p>Vinnie Ream, Edwin B. Hay Monument, 1906</p><br>
<p>Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Adams Memorial, 1890</p><br>
<p>Mary Washburn, Waite Memorial, 1909</p><br>
<p>Adolph Alexander Weinman, Spencer Memorial, after 1919</p><br>
<p>Numerous fine works by unknown sculptors also exist in the cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>Notable interments</h2><br>
<h3>A</h3><br>
<p>Cleveland Abbe (1838–1916), prominent meteorologist</p><br>
<p>John James Abert (1788–1863), chief of the Corps of Topographical Engineers</p><br>
<p>Henry Adams (1838–1918), writer, descendant of two USA presidents; grave is marked by the Adams Memorial</p><br>
<p>Clover Hooper Adams (1843–1885), Washington hostess and accomplished amateur photographer, wife of Henry Adams; grave is marked by the Adams Memorial</p><br>
<p>Alice Warfield Allen (1869–1929), mother of the Duchess of Windsor, Wallis Simpson</p><br>
<p>Doug Allison (1846–1916), baseball player</p><br>
<p>Thomas H. Anderson (1848–1916), associate judge of the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia</p><br>
<p>Frank Crawford Armstrong (1835–1909), Confederate general</p><br>
<p>Timothy P. Andrews (1794–1868), Union Army general and paymaster-general of the United States Army (1862–1864)</p><br>
<p>James B. Aswell (1869–1931), educator and member of the USA House of Representatives from 1913 to 1931</p><br>
<h3>B</h3><br>
<p>Abraham Baldwin (1754–1807), USA Senator, signer of the USA Constitution, first president of the University of Georgia</p><br>
<p>Cecil A. Beasley, Alabama state senator</p><br>
<p>Willard L. Beaulac (1899–1990), USA Ambassador to Paraguay, Colombia, Cube, Chile and Argentina</p><br>
<p>Melville Bell (1819–1905), Scottish teacher and inventor, father of Alexander Graham Bell, Hubbard Bell Grossman Pillot Memorial</p><br>
<p>Eliza Grace Symonds Bell, wife of Alexander Melville Bell</p><br>
<p>Joseph Bray Bennett (1833–1913), Wisconsin state senator and appointments clerk at the USA Department of Agriculture</p><br>
<p>Andrew H. Berding, journalist and former Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs</p><br>
<p>Emile Berliner (1851–1929), German-born American inventor of the gramophone</p><br>
<p>Arthur A. Birney (1852–1916), USA Attorney for the District of Columbia</p><br>
<p>John W. Bischoff (1850–1909), composer and organist.</p><br>
<p>Montgomery Blair (1813–1883), Abraham Lincoln&#39;s Postmaster General</p><br>
<p>Ben H. Brown Jr. (1914–1989), former United States ambassador to Liberia</p><br>
<p>Robert C. Buchanan (1811–1878), military general during the American Civil War and the Mexican War</p><br>
<p>Robert N. Butler (1927–2010), gerontologist</p><br>
<h3>C</h3><br>
<p>Camille Chautemps (1885–1963), prime minister of France</p><br>
<p>Edward Clark (1822–1902), Architect of the Capitol</p><br>
<p>Catherine Cate Coblentz (1897–1951), writer, wife of William Coblentz</p><br>
<p>William Coblentz (1873–1962), physicist, notable for pioneer contributions to infrared radiometry and spectroscopy</p><br>
<p>William Eleroy Curtis (1850–1911), journalist, diplomat, and advocate of Pan-Americanism</p><br>
<h3>D</h3><br>
<p>Evelyn Y. Davis, (1929–2018), American activist shareholder.</p><br>
<p>S. Wallace Dempsey (1862–1949), Republican politician</p><br>
<p>Hubert Dilger (1836–1911), American Civil War artillerist, captain in the Union Army, Medal of Honor recipient</p><br>
<p>J. Maury Dove (1855–1924), business executive and hotelier</p><br>
<p>Gerald A. Drew (1903–1970), United States ambassador to Haiti and Bolivia</p><br>
<p>Roscoe Drummond (1902–1983), journalist and editor</p><br>
<p>Amanda Ruter Dufour (1822–1899), poet</p><br>
<h3>E</h3><br>
<p>Susan Ann Edson (1823–1897), personal physician to President James A. Garfield</p><br>
<p>Henry Jackson Ellicott (1847–1901), sculptor and architectural sculptor</p><br>
<p>Matthew Gault Emery (1818–1901), mayor of Washington, D.C., from 1870 to 1871</p><br>
<p>Henry Ellsworth Ewing (1883–1951), arachnologist</p><br>
<h3>F</h3><br>
<p>Charles S. Fairfax (1829–1869), Virginia-born California politician who was entitled to the British title 10th Lord Fairfax of Cameron</p><br>
<p>Stephen Johnson Field (1816–1899), Associate justice of US Supreme Court</p><br>
<p>Peter Force (1790–1868), politician, USA Army lieutenant in the War of 1812, newspaper editor, archivist, and historian, who served as the twelfth mayor of Washington, D.C., and whose library of historical documents became the first major Americana collection of the Library of Congress</p><br>
<p>Israel Moore Foster (1873–1950), Republican member of the USA House of Representatives</p><br>
<p>William H. French (1815–1881), major general during the American Civil War and the Mexican War</p><br>
<h3>G</h3><br>
<p>Julius Garfinckel (1872–1936), merchant, founder of Washington department store, Garfinckel&#39;s</p><br>
<p>Harry Post Godwin (1857–1900) Chief Editor of the National Republican, Washington Star</p><br>
<p>Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor (1875–1966), president of the National Geographic Society, Hubbard Bell Grossman Pillot Memorial</p><br>
<h3>H</h3><br>
<p>Mary Berri Chapman Hansbrough (1872–1951), poet and painter</p><br>
<p>John Marshall Harlan (1833–1911), Supreme Court associate justice, known as the "Great Dissenter&quot wrote the lone dissenting opinion in Plessy v. Ferguson</p><br>
<p>Patricia Roberts Harris (1924–1985), ambassador, first African-American woman to serve in a presidential cabinet</p><br>
<p>George L. Harrison (1887–1958), banker, insurance executive, and political advisor during World War II</p><br>
<p>Patricia McMahon Hawkins (1949–2021), diplomat</p><br>
<p>Frank Hatton (1846–1894), USA postmaster general and editor of the Washington Post</p><br>
<p>Christian Heurich (1842–1945), German-born American founder of Heurich Brewery (1871–1954)</p><br>
<p>Samuel Billingsley Hill (1875–1958), USA representative from Washington and member of the United States Board of Tax Appeals (now the United States Tax Court)</p><br>
<p>Lemon G. Hine (1832–1914), member of the D.C. board of commissioners</p><br>
<p>William Henry Holmes (1846–1933), known for scientific illustration of the American West, his role in the controversy over the antiquity of humans in the Americas, and leadership at the Smithsonian Institution</p><br>
<h3>J</h3><br>
<p>Charles Francis Jenkins (1867–1934), television and motion picture pioneer</p><br>
<p>Nelson T. Johnson (1887–1954), ambassador</p><br>
<p>James Kimbrough Jones (1839–1908), politician</p><br>
<p>John Johnson (1842–1907), Medal of Honor recipient</p><br>
<p>Opha May Johnson (1879–1955), 1st known female USA Marine (1918)</p><br>
<h3>K</h3><br>
<p>Samuel H. Kauffmann (1829–1906) newspaper publisher</p><br>
<p>Oliver Hudson Kelley (1826–1913), a founder of the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry (The Grange)</p><br>
<p>Margaret Sherratt Keys (1856-1942), British-born American artist, china painter, store proprietor</p><br>
<p>Angela Jurdak Khoury (1915–2011), Lebanon&#39;s first female diplomat and esteemed member of the Lebanese delegation to the United Nations.</p><br>
<p>Sergei Kourdakov (1951–1973), a former KGB agent who defected to Canada from the Soviet Union</p><br>
<h3>L</h3><br>
<p>Bruce Laingen (1922–2019), diplomat</p><br>
<p>Richard Lawrence (1800–1861), attempted assassin of President Andrew Jackson</p><br>
<p>Jane Lawton (1944–2007), Maryland Democratic politician, member of the Maryland House of Delegates</p><br>
<p>Blair Lee I (1857–1944), USA Senator from Maryland</p><br>
<p>Blair Lee III (1916–1985), Democratic politician</p><br>
<p>George E. Lemon (?–1896), patent lawyer and founder of the journal National Tribune</p><br>
<p>Walter Lenox (1817–1874), mayor of Washington from 1850 to 1852</p><br>
<p>John Lenthall (1807–1882), naval architect and shipbuilder, Chief Constructor of the Navy from 1849 to 1853 and chief of the United States Navys Bureau of Construction and Repair from 1853 to 1871</p><br>
<p>Fulton Lewis (1903–1966), radio and television broadcaster</p><br>
<p>George W. Littlehales, (1860-1943) oceanographer of the United States Hydrographic Office</p><br>
<p>Alice Roosevelt Longworth (1884–1980), Republican Party icon, daughter of Theodore Roosevelt</p><br>
<p>Anthony Francis Lucas (1855–1921), Croatian-born mechanical engineer</p><br>
<h3>M</h3><br>
<p>Arthur MacArthur Sr. (1815–1896), 4th Governor of Wisconsin, grandfather of General Douglas MacArthur</p><br>
<p>Frank Mankiewicz (1924–2014), journalist and political adviser</p><br>
<p>Jackie Martin (1903–1969), newspaperwoman</p><br>
<p>Anna Broom McCeney (1850–1903), mother of vaudeville performer La Belle Titcomb (Heloise McCeney)</p><br>
<p>Hugh McCulloch (1808–1895), Secretary of the Treasury</p><br>
<p>George McGovern (1922–2012), Democratic presidential nominee in 1972 and senator from South Dakota</p><br>
<p>Dempster McIntosh (1896–1984), ambassador</p><br>
<p>Evalyn Walsh McLean (1886–1947), wealthy heiress, one–time owner of the Hope Diamond and the Washington Post</p><br>
<p>Washington McLean (1816–1890), businessman, owner of the Cincinnati Enquirer newspaper</p><br>
<p>John Gordon Mein (1913–1968), ambassador</p><br>
<p>William Rush Merriam, (1849–1931), governor of Minnesota, father of the United States Census Bureau</p><br>
<p>Mihran Mesrobian (1889–1975), Armenian-American architect</p><br>
<h3>N</h3><br>
<p>Elizabeth Norment (1952–2014), actress</p><br>
<h3>O</h3><br>
<p>Carmel Offie (1909–1972), Central Intelligence Agency official</p><br>
<h3>P</h3><br>
<p>Thomas Nelson Page (1853–1922), First Families of Virginia descendant, attorney, ambassador to Italy, and Southern writer</p><br>
<p>Stephan Panaretoff (1853–1931), educator and the first Bulgarian minister plenipotentiary to the United States</p><br>
<p>William Paret (1826–1911), sixth Episcopal Bishop of Maryland</p><br>
<p>Rosalie Mackenzie Poe (1810–1874), poet and sister of Edgar Allan Poe</p><br>
<p>Terence Powderly (1849–1924), longtime leader of the Knights of Labor</p><br>
<p>Robert Prosky (1930–2008), actor</p><br>
<h3>R</h3><br>
<p>John B. Raymond (1844–1886), politician</p><br>
<p>Isidor Rayner (1850–1912), Democratic politician, USA senator from Maryland</p><br>
<p>George Washington Riggs (1813–1881), banker, founder of Riggs Bank</p><br>
<p>William A. Rodenberg (1865–1937), politician</p><br>
<p>Frederick Rodgers (1842–1917), United States Navy rear admiral</p><br>
<p>Basil Rodzianko (1915–1999), Bishop of Orthodox Church in America Diocese of the West</p><br>
<p>Tim Russert (1950–2008), journalist, host of Meet the Press</p><br>
<h3>S</h3><br>
<p>Alexander Robey Shepherd (1835–1902), politician, governor of District of Columbia from 1873 to 1874</p><br>
<p>Thetus W. Sims (1852–1939), politician and a member of the United States House of Representatives for the eighth congressional district of Tennessee from 1897 to 1921</p><br>
<p>Upton Sinclair (1878–1968), author, Pulitzer Prize winner</p><br>
<p>Ainsworth Rand Spofford (1825–1908), journalist and publisher, sixth Librarian of the United States Congress from 1864 to 1897</p><br>
<p>Harlan Fiske Stone (1872–1946), Chief Justice of the United States</p><br>
<p>Paulina Longworth Sturm (1925–1957), daughter of Alice Roosevelt and granddaughter of Theodore Roosevelt</p><br>
<h3>T</h3><br>
<p>Abner Taylor (1829–1903), politician</p><br>
<p>George Taylor (1820–1894), attorney and Democratic politician</p><br>
<p>Florence Calvert Thorne (1877–1973), labor activist</p><br>
<p>Thomas Weston Tipton (1817–1899), USA senator from Nebraska</p><br>
<p>Ariadna Tyrkova-Williams (1869–1962), Russian-American writer and journalist</p><br>
<h3>V</h3><br>
<p>Tran Van Chuong (1898–1986), South Vietnam&#39;s ambassador to the USA, appointed by Ngo Dinh Diem</p><br>
<p>Willis Van Devanter (1859–1941), USA Supreme Court associate justice</p><br>
<p>Gore Vidal (1925–2012), author and playwright, next to his companion of 50 years Howard Austen.</p><br>
<h3>W</h3><br>
<p>Edward T. Wailes (1903–1969), USA Ambassador to Czechoslovakia, Iran, Hungary and South Africa</p><br>
<p>Charles Doolittle Walcott (1850–1927), Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution</p><br>
<p>Paul Warnke (1920–2001), diplomat, assistant secretary of state from 1966 to 1969; SALT Negotiator and Director of the Arms Control and disarmament Agency under President Clinton</p><br>
<p>Sumner Welles (1892–1961), diplomat, undersecretary of State from 1937 to 1943</p><br>
<p>Burton K. Wheeler (1882–1975), Democratic politician and USA senator from Montana</p><br>
<p>James Alexander Williamson (1829–1902), Union Army general during the American Civil War, Medal of Honor recipient</p><br>
<p>Richard L. Wilson (1905–1981), journalist</p><br>
<p>William Windom (1827–1891), USA representative, senator, secretary of the treasury (under James Garfield & Benjamin Harrison)</p><br>
<p>Otis Wingo (1877–1930), USA representative from Arkansas&#39;s 4th congressional district, 1913–1930</p><br>
<p>Willie Wood (1936–2020), football player</p><br>
<p>John Vines Wright (1828–1908), USA representative from Tennessee, member of the Confederate Congress, judge of the Tennessee Supreme Court</p><br>
<h3>Y</h3><br>
<p>Helen Yakobson, (1913–2002) academic and professor at George Washington University</p><br>
<p>Fort Hawkins was a fort built between 1806 and 1810 by the United States Army during President Thomas Jeffersons administration. Built in what is now Georgia on the Fall Line on the east side of the Ocmulgee River, the fort overlooked the Ocmulgee Old Fields. The Lower Creek Trading Path passed by just outside the forts northwestern blockhouse, and continued in a westerly direction to a natural ford on the Ocmulgee River. The fort became important to the Lower Creek Indians, the United States, and the State of Georgia for economic, military, and political reasons.</p><br>
<p>The fort originally had a log palisade wall surrounding a 1.4-acre area, which contained living and working quarters for soldiers and officers, as well as two blockhouses on the northwestern and southeastern corners. A replica of the southeastern blockhouse was begun in 1928 based on architectural plans by Curran Ellis and Henry Behr, but not completed until 1938. A small archaeological excavation was conducted in 1936. The Fort Hawkins Archeological Site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is included within the boundaries of the Fort Hill Historic District, also listed on the NRHP.</p><br>
<p>The Fort Hawkins Commission ran the site from 1990-2018. Under the guidance of Chairman Bob Cramer, the commission hired the Lamar Institute to conduct archaeological excavations in 2005. These excavations continued intermittently until 2013, and found evidence of a second palisade wall, as well as several brick buildings, and recovered nearly 40,000 artifacts. Historical research by Dan Elliott has also added greatly to the current understanding of the fort. A replica log cabin was dedicated in 2014 to serve as a Visitors&#39; Center. The commission was replaced by the non-profit Fort Hawkins Foundation, Inc. in 2018, and this organization has run the site ever since.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Fort Hawkins was built by the United States in 1806, and was a place of "relatively great economic, military, and political importance."</p><br>
<p>The US government used the fort as the Southeastern Command of the USA Army. It was "a major troop garrison and bivouac point for regular troops and state militia in several important campaigns, and a major government fur trade factory for regulating the Creek economy." The Creek Indians ceded their lands east of the Ocmulgee River, except for the Ocmulgee Old Fields. The fort was built on the highest ground in the immediate vicinity. The Lower Creek Trading Path passed just outside of the forts northwestern blockhouse. This ancient path was improved and became a part of the Federal Road to connect the nations capital city with the ports of Mobile, Alabama, and New Orleans, Louisiana. This change encouraged the travel of many more troops, settlers, and visitors to the area.</p><br>
<p>Fort Hawkins (not Fort Benjamin Hawkins) was named for Benjamin Hawkins, who served as the General Superintendent of Indian Affairs (1796–1816) South of the Ohio River, as well as principal US Indian agent to the Creek. A former US Senator from North Carolina, Hawkins had been appointed by President George Washington to deal with the Choctaw, Cherokee and Chickasaw in the larger territory, and worked to bring about years of peace between the Creek and American settlers. Hawkins was named the Beloved Man of the Southeastern tribes, indicating the respect they had for him. He married Lavinia Downs, the daughter of Isaac Downs, a veteran of the American Revolutionary War.</p><br>
<p>Fort Hawkins was used during the USA military campaigns of the War of 1812 against Great Britain. General Andrew Jackson visited the Fort and used it as a staging area for the Battle of New Orleans from 1814-15, as well as during the Creek and Seminole wars. After the frontier moved farther west, the military threat to interior Georgia essentially receded. Through the treaties of 1825 and 1826, the Creek were forced to move west of the Chattahoochee River. The city of Macon was founded in 1823, and by 1828, the fort was in private ownership.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation, reconstruction and excavation</h2><br>
<p>From 1928, the Daughters of the American Revolution and the Macon Kiwanis Club raised funds to create a replica of one of the blockhouses to memorialize the fort. In 1936, archaeological a small excavation under the direction of archaeologist Gordon Willey, and supported by workers and funded under the US Works Progress Administration (WPA) was conducted. The reconstruction of a replica of the souteastern blockhouse was completed in 1938. Some of the original stones were recovered to be used in the basement section. The upper floors were made of concrete formed to simulate the original wood timbers, intended to be more durable at a time of uncertain funding for historic projects.</p><br>
<p>Because historical records had been destroyed when Washington, D.C., was burned during the War of 1812, in 1971 the city authorized limited archaeological excavation to establish the original dimensions of the fort. The excavation revealed numerous ceramic artifacts, including remnants of English-American style dishes used by residents, dated from c.1779 – c.1834. Fort Hawkins was listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). in 1977.</p><br>
<p>The City of Macon acquired the historic site in 2002 with help from the state&#39;s Greenspace Program and the Peyton Anderson Foundation. After redevelopment, the city and Commission plan to use the fort site as a greenspace park and as a history center for the city. The southeast blockhouse, which is opened to the public, has become an icon of the city. Archeologists were concerned that construction of the Fort Hawkins Grammar School and a road on part of the site in the early 20th century had destroyed the archaeological record. Since 2005, archeological excavations at the fort site have shown that extensive artifacts and stratigraphy have survived and can be interpreted.</p><br>
<p>From 2005 to 2007, the Fort Hawkins Commission, with funding from the Peyton Anderson Foundation and the City of Macon, hired the Lamar Institute to conduct extensive excavations of the fort site. Principal Archaeologist Dan Elliotts work revealed evidence of two palisade walls having been constructed there. The second palisade enclosed several brick buildings, making it a more substantial complex than originally thought by the limited historical descriptions. In 2007, additional palisades were found. Related historical research has indicated that these were probably constructed from 1809–1810 by the USA Armys Regiment of Rifles.</p><br>
<p>The nearly 40,000 artifacts recovered from the fort era (1806–1821), provide insight into the lives of the different groups of people interacting with one another on the American frontier. Limited excavations in May 2012 focused on discovering remnants of the northwestern blockhouse. Indirect evidence of the blockhouse is indicated by the abrupt termination of the western palisade wall (circa 1806) at its northern end. All outward indications of the blockhouse have been lost to erosion and grading.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Fort Hawkins Foundation, Inc. operates the Fort Hawkins site, and is currently making plans for the reconstruction of the entire fort complex as a site where the public may immerse themselves in the history and archaeology of Fort Hawkins, the Woolfolk Plantation, and Fort Hawkins School - all of which have been situated on the property at different times.</p><br>
<p>Fort Hawkins also hosts the Ocmulgee Archaeological Society, which holds its monthly meetings at the Visitors&#39; Center at 6:30 pm on the first Monday of each month (excluding holidays). This archaeological non-profit specializes in public archaeology, and has hosted Fort Hawkins Archaeology Day each May since 2004 on the grounds of this important historic archaeological site</p><br>
<h2>Recognition</h2><br>
<p>1977, Fort Hawkins Archeological Site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places(NRHP).</p><br>
<p>1993, Fort Hawkins is included in the Fort Hill Historic District, listed on the NRHP.</p><br>
<p>2002, a State Highway Marker was erected at the fort.</p><br>
<p>2007, Fort Hawkins was featured in Georgia&#39;s Archaeology Month program, capped by a weekend celebration at the fort.</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<p>Tower Grove Park is a municipal park in St. Louis, Missouri. Located on the south side of the city, the elongated 289 acre park extends 1.6 mi from Kingshighway Boulevard east to Grand Boulevard. The park’s predominately residential surroundings include the neighborhoods of Southwest Garden, Shaw, Tower Grove East, and Tower Grove South.</p><br>
<p>Both Tower Grove Park and the neighboring Missouri Botanical Garden were part of the estate of 19th-century businessman and botanist Henry Shaw. In 1868, Shaw donated the land for the park to the city of St. Louis.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Tower Grove Park was originally part of La Petite Prairie, which was settled by the French in the early 18th century. Grazing land was held in common, and farming land was divided into long, narrow tracts. The commons system was abandoned around 1800, and the land began to be sold into private hands. By the 1850s much of the property was owned by German Catholics, recent immigrants from Germany&#39;s 1848 civil war. The German dairy farmers found it ideal as pasture land. They built comfortable homes and began creating a community toward the end of the 19th century. Blocks were developed, upon which many of the prosperous German immigrants, turned American citizens, built grand homes. The area around the park continues to be home to a number of residential neighborhoods.</p><br>
<p>Henry Shaw donated the land for the park in 1868, and the park opened to the public in 1872.</p><br>
<h2>Environment and facilities</h2><br>
<p>The park features 32 pavilions of picturesque design, most dating from the Victorian era. The landscape includes a lily pond and formal plantings; the Piper Palm House, a bandstand, the site of music and other special events; as well as tennis courts; a wading pool for small children; open expanses of green; softball diamonds and soccer fields; paths for walkers, joggers, and cyclists, and tall specimen trees and a great variety of bushes. Designed in the gardenesque style by James Gurney Sr., the park has been designated a National Historic Landmark as one of the nation&#39;s finest examples of a late 19th-century public park. Gurney had been head of the aquatic plants section at Kew Gardens in London, and he remained in St. Louis as superintendent of the park.</p><br>
<p>The park is home to nearly 400 species of trees, bushes, and flowering plants. It is a well-known birdwatching area, particularly during the spring and fall bird migration seasons. It is part of the Mississippi Flyway and migrating birds rest in the park along their journey. Forty percent of North American songbirds and waterbirds use this route. Examples are many types of warblers, orioles, and Canada geese.</p><br>
<h2>Statues</h2><br>
<p>There are several statues from the 1800s along the central corridor of the park. There is a full likeness of Alexander von Humboldt, the German naturalist, geographer and explorer, and one of William Shakespeare the English playwright, both from 1878 and sculpted by German sculptor Ferdinand Freiherr von Miller. von Miller also produced a statue of the Italian navigator and explorer Christopher Columbus that was dedicated in 1886, and placed near the gates and entrance from Grand Avenue.</p><br>
<p>The Christopher Columbus statue had been annually commemorated by the local Italian American community. In 2016 and 2017, the statue was vandalized with red paint and messages including "murderer" and "Black Lives Matter." Calls for the statues removal in 2018 initiated forming a commission to make recommendations on the statues future. The Columbus statue was removed from the park in June 2020.</p><br>
<p>Around the bandstand there are white marble busts of some famous musical composers mounted on columns. Mozart and Rossini by Howard Kretschmar from 1882, Beethoven and Wagner by Ferdinand von Miller from 1884, and Gounod and Verdi by Carlo Nicoli from 1886.</p><br>
<p>There is a smaller scale statue of Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, the German born military officer and American Revolution volunteer, near the Palm house. Steuben later became an American citizen and figure to German Americans. The original, larger statue (by the German sculptor Cuno von Uechtritz-Steinkirch) was commissioned for the 1904 World&#39;s Fair. The current version was placed in Tower Grove Park in 1968.</p><br>
<p>Two zinc statues of stags, en couchant and on pedestals, face each other across Center Cross Drive, just west of the Piper Palm House.</p><br>
<h2>Events</h2><br>
<p>Many events, from picnics to weddings, are held in the park throughout the year. During the summer, a number of large festivals are held in the park, including ones featuring themes such as international culture and paganism. The park has also been the site of various LGBTQ Pride festivals.</p><br>
<p>Since 2005, from May through October, a farmers&#39; market is held from 8-12:30 Saturday mornings just west of the Wading Pool Pavilion. It features local and organic farmers offering fresh produce and meats, baked goods and preserves, as well as prepared foods and drinks, teas and coffees, with stalls for craftsmen and artisans as well.</p><br>
<h2>Photos of pavilions</h2><br>
<p>The Portland Observatory is a historic maritime signal tower at 138 Congress Street in the Munjoy Hill section of Portland, Maine. Built in 1807, it is the only known surviving tower of its type in the United States. Using both a telescope and signal flags, two-way communication between ship and shore was possible several hours before an incoming vessel reached the docks. The tower was designated a National Historic Landmark and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 2006; it is now managed by Greater Portland Landmarks, a local historic preservation nonprofit. It is open to the public as a museum.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Portland has a deep harbor sheltered by numerous islands. Ships entering the harbor are not directly visible from the wharfs, which created problems for merchants trying to prepare for the arrival of cargoes. This problem was solved in 1807 when Captain Lemuel Moody organized the construction of an observatory on Portland&#39;s Munjoy Hill, visible from both the open ocean and the wharfs. During the War of 1812, the observatory was used as a watch tower.</p><br>
<h2>About the observatory</h2><br>
<p>The 86-foot (26 m) tall observatory (7 stories) is octagonal (to lessen wind pressure on each side) and lighthouse-shaped, with a fieldstone base of heavy loose rocks, and stands 222 feet (68 m) above sea level. There is no basement but the rock ballast in the bottom floor and octagonal design have kept the structure steady during storms. The observatorys lantern&#39; (cupola) included a P & J Dollond Achromatic Refracting Telescope, which could identify ships 30 miles (48 km) to sea. That telescope disappeared from the observatory in 1939.</p><br>
<p>The observatory has been renovated numerous times over the years, including a Works Progress Administration renovation in 1939. It was most recently renovated from 1998–2000 to repair damage from moisture and powderpost beetles. This renovation won a 2001 National Preservation Honor Award from the National Trust for Historic Preservation. The center column was not an original feature, and was added in the 1939 renovation. In 2014 additional repairs to the windows and shingles were underway.</p><br>
<p>The observatory was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. In 2006, the observatory was made a National Historic Landmark and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.</p><br>
<h3>Past operation</h3><br>
<p>The Portland Observatory is the only remaining maritime signal station in the United States. Tower operations were paid with annual fees collected from shipping merchants, who purchased the right to have their flags stored in the building and hoisted up its flagstaffs when their ships were sighted. A telephone was eventually installed, extending the tower&#39;s function until 1923, when the reliability of engine powered vessels and communication by radio made it obsolete.</p><br>
<p>In 1937 the tower was turned over to the city. Between the time of its closure and the 1990s, the building was often unlocked and popular among area children. Some older area residents have fond memories of playing in the building and the initials some of them carved into the wood are still visible. The latest major restoration left as much of the original wood as possible in place. This is distinguished by its dark stain while the replacement wood was left its original lighter color.</p><br>
<h3>Current operation</h3><br>
<p>Greater Portland Landmarks, a non-profit organization, maintains the building. Guided tours with discussion about the history of the building and the neighborhood are provided by volunteer docents from Memorial Day to Columbus Day for a small fee. On very clear days the view from the cupola&#39;s balcony extends from the seaward horizon as far inland as Mount Washington.</p><br>
<p>The Reformed Church of Newtown is a historic Reformed church in the Elmhurst neighborhood of Queens in New York City. The church was first established by Dutch immigrants in 1731. The neighborhood had been established in 1652 by the Dutch as Middenburgh, a village suburb of New Amsterdam . After the English took over the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1664, the village was renamed New Town, later simplified to Newtown. When Newtown was renamed Elmhurst in the late 1890s, the church retained its original name, a name still also carried by the local high school and subway station.</p><br>
<p>The Reformed Church of Newtown is a congregation in the Queens classis of the New York regional synod of the Reformed Church in America (RCA). Founded in 1628, the Reformed Church in America is the oldest Protestant Christian denomination in the United States.</p><br>
<h2>Church building</h2><br>
<p>The original Federal-Greek Revival style building, completed in 1735, had survived the struggles of the colonial days and the disruptions of the American Revolutionary War (during which the British seized it for use as an armory). It was replaced in 1832 by the present sanctuary, a New York City designated landmark. The Reformed Church of Newtown Complex was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<p>The cornerstone of the original building can still be seen in the foundation of its present structure. The sanctuary and adjoining fellowship hall are, as noted by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, "one of the few all wood church groups remaining in the City." A 1989 renovation replaced cupolas that had been damaged by a storm.</p><br>
<h2>Congregation</h2><br>
<p>As the needs of the church and community changed, staffing was increased, structural improvements were made, and the preaching shifted from Dutch to English. In 1956, for its 225th anniversary, President Dwight D. Eisenhower visited the church. For this occasion, the Reverend A. Nelson Doak compiled a brief history of the parish and praised Elmhurst&#39;s ethnic diversity.</p><br>
<p>In 1980, as Elmhurst was changing complexion, Rev. Doaks hope for Newtown Church began to be fulfilled. His successor, the Rev. David Boyce, perceiving the changing needs of the community, initiated a worship service for Taiwanese immigrants and later another service for the increasing population of Tamil-speaking Indians in the area. The originally Dutch church now had services in English, Taiwanese, and Tamil. The Tamil ministry stopped after the death of the Tamil minister, the Rev. Paul Theodore, but some Tamil members incorporated themselves into the English service and remained with the congregation. Meanwhile, the Taiwanese ministry, led by the Rev. Bill H.C. Lee, soon outnumbered Newtowns white congregants, as the membership more than doubled from 1981 to 1982. The Taiwanese had entered in, not as a distinct congregation, but as an additional ministry under the authority of Newtowns leadership. As full members, they voted and soon obtained seats on the churchs consistory. Although there can technically be only one “senior pastor” in an RCA parish, Pastor Boyce, recognizing the unique circumstances of the day, had innovatively elevated Lee to be an equal “co-pastor” with him.</p><br>
<p>In 1995, the Rev. David K.T. Su instituted a third worship service in Mandarin Chinese. Efforts by the church to fulfill the Scriptural call to be "a house of prayer for all peoples" have thus resulted in a Taiwanese service, a Mandarin service, and an English service attended by Asians, Latinos, and white Americans each Sunday. In December 2017, Rev. Su retired after nearly three decades of service to the church, after which the Rev. Dr. Tien-Heng Chiu was installed as Senior Pastor.</p><br>
<p>The Reformed Church of Newtown has also produced several ministers for the Reformed Church of America in recent decades: the Rev. I. Douglas Estella (ordained 1986) and the Rev. Ben Lin (ordained 1997), both sons of Newtown Church.</p><br>
<p>The Bartow–Pell Mansion is a historic house museum at 895 Shore Road in the northern section of Pelham Bay Park, within the New York City borough of the Bronx. The two-story building, designed in the mid-19th century by an unknown architect, has a Greek Revival facade and federal interiors and is the last surviving manor house in the Pelham Bay Park area. The grounds surrounding the mansion take up 9 acre and include a three-story carriage house; terraced gardens overlooking Long Island Sound to the east; and a small burial plot for the Pell family, which once occupied the land.</p><br>
<p>The house sits on an estate that Thomas Pell purchased from the native Siwanoy in 1654; the Pell family built two previous residences on the grounds in both 1675 and 1790. Robert Bartow, a relative of the Pell family, built the third and current house at some point between 1836 and 1842. Ownership of the house remained in the Bartow and Pell families until 1888, when the government of New York City bought it, and the house remained empty until 1914 when the International Garden Club, co-founded by Zelia Hoffman and Alice Martineau, leased it. The IGC renovated the home into a clubhouse and moved in during 1915. Mayor Fiorello La Guardia used the mansion as his summer residence during 1936. The IGC opened part of the house to the public as a museum in May 1946 while continuing to use it as a clubhouse. The mansion&#39;s carriage house was restored between 1987 and 1993.</p><br>
<p>The house is oriented on a north-south axis with wings on either side, and has a stone facade with balconies and large windows. The interior of the mansions first floor is arranged around a square central hall with an elliptical staircase; it includes two parlors, a sitting room and a small dining room. The second floor contains bedrooms, while the cellar was used for storing wine. The carriage house, which contained a stable hands home, vehicular storage, and the hayloft, has served as an exhibition and educational space since 1993. Some of the furnishings include the desk of Aaron Burr and a Lannuier bed. The mansion&#39;s facade, interior, and surrounding grounds are designated as a New York City designated landmark and a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>The Bartow–Pell Mansion is located in the northern section of Pelham Bay Park in the Bronx in New York City. Although its official address is 895 Shore Road, the house is within a wooded portion of the park and is accessible only via a driveway extending 200 yd off Shore Road. There is a parking lot in front of the mansion, at the end of the driveway. Rhododendrons and lilacs were planted along the driveway during the mid-20th century. The Bartow-Pell Woods and Pelham Bay Parks lagoon are to the east, while the Pelham Golf Course is to the northwest. Orchard Beach is across the lagoon. The nearest New York City Subway station is the Pelham Bay Park station, located across the Hutchinson River. Bee-Line Buss 45 route also stops outside the estate.</p><br>
<p>The mansion and its garden take up 9 acre of Pelham Bay Park. Northeast of the mansion itself is the estate&#39;s carriage house. To the east of the mansion is a formal terraced garden, which slopes down gently toward the lagoon and Long Island Sound. As built, the garden is composed of several levels, with a sunken square fountain in the center and a set of steps on either side. The other terraces were planted with petunias and yew trees, The garden is surrounded by a 7 ft wall, The Mary Ludington Herb Garden adjoins the terraced garden.</p><br>
<p>Just south of the Bartow–Pell Mansion was a tree named Treaty Oak. The Siwanoy Native American chief Wampage and English colonist Thomas Pell signed a treaty under the tree in 1654, in which Pell purchased all land east of the Bronx River in what was then Westchester County, New York. The oak tree, which was surrounded by a fence, was destroyed in 1906 and replanted in 1915. Approximately 100 yd south of the house is a burial plot belonging to the Pell family, who had once occupied the site. This plot contains headstones dating from between 1748 and 1790. symbolizing the Pell family&#39;s coat of arms. There formerly may have been additional gravestones, but they were scattered throughout the grounds by the time the International Garden Club (IGC) took over in the early 20th century.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1654, Thomas Pell purchased 50,000 acre from the Siwanoy, comprising the land of the current Pelham Bay Park as well as the nearby town of Pelham, New York, Pell&#39;s land became known as Pelham Manor in 1666. By the 18th century, several members of the Pell family had married members of the Bartow family.</p><br>
<p>Thomass nephew John built a residence close to Long Island Sound around 1675, about a decade after Pelham Manor was created. The house was located either east of Shore Road or at the extreme end of Pelham Neck (which is located between Eastchester Bay and the Long Island South). This house was designed in an English style, with a facade of Holland brick. The first residence was occupied by three of Pelham Manors lords of the manor before it burned in the American Revolutionary War. The second house may have reused the foundation of John Pell&#39;s first house; at the time, it was common for buildings to reuse the foundations of demolished structures on the same site. The second house was likely demolished when the Leroys owned the estate.</p><br>
<h3>Use as residence</h3><br>
<p>Robert Bartow, a relative of the Pell family bought 30 acre of his ancestors old estate in 1836. Construction was complete on the Bartow Mansion and an adjacent carriage building by 1842, Robert Boltons Guide to New Rochelle, published in 1842, stated that Robert Bartow "lately" constructed the mansion but did not specify further. When it was completed, the house was part of Westchester County,</p><br>
<p>The Bartow and Pell families alternately owned the building for the next four decades. Initially, Robert, Maria, and their seven children lived in the house. In June 1884, Governor Grover Cleveland signed the New Parks Act into law, authorizing the creation of a system of parks in the Bronx, including Pelham Bay Park. The Bartows wanted the city to give them $467,953 for their property, although the city government had concluded that the estate was worth only $131,000.</p><br>
<p>Despite Pelham residents&#39; opposition to the park, the New York City government acquired the land for Pelham Bay Park in 1887, and it officially became a park in 1888. The same year, the New York City government obtained the house from descendants of the Bartow family. when the boundary between Westchester and the Bronx was moved northward.</p><br>
<h3>Use as clubhouse</h3><br>
<h4>Renovation and reopening</h4><br>
<p>The New York City Department of Parks and Recreation (NYC Parks) leased the building to the International Garden Club in 1914. The IGC had been co-founded by Zelia Hoffman and Alice Martineau the previous year to promote formal gardens, In addition, the club wished to host exhibits and lectures, and it planned to curate a library in the mansion. The firm of Delano & Aldrich was hired to restore the home. The exterior was renovated, and the formal gardens were constructed from 1914 to 1917. The interior was also renovated to accommodate the clubhouses functions, although the houses architectural details were preserved as much as possible. A designer identified only as Miss Swift redesigned the first floor, while Hoffman selected furnishings and decorations for the second floor. Sources disagree on whether the renovations cost $25,000 or $100,000.</p><br>
<p>The mansion opened as the IGC&#39;s headquarters on May 1, 1915, with a ceremony attended by New York governor Charles Whitman. All of the other mansions nearby were gradually destroyed, leaving the Bartow Mansion as the only remaining mansion in Pelham Bay Park.</p><br>
<h4>Mid-1910s through early 1940s</h4><br>
<p>The IGC started hosting summertime outdoor flower shows in June 1916. The same year, Hoffman hired the landscape design firm Olmsted Brothers to discuss the possibility of adding a wide variety of gardens and a greenhouse. None of these ideas were ever implemented. In the 1920s and 1930s, the IGC continued to host its annual "garden parties" at the mansion,See, for example:</p><br>
<p>and it also hosted "distinguished foreigners" such as a member of the French Academy of Sciences. The mansion&#39;s driveway was modified in the 1930s, when a parking lot was added in front of the mansion.</p><br>
<p>New York City mayor Fiorello La Guardia announced in June 1936 that the mansion would be used as the citys first-ever "Summer City Hall&quot this allowed him to be close to his family in Westport, Connecticut. La Guardia and several aides officially moved into the house on July 2, 1936. A temporary telephone line and a teleprinter were added to ease communication with people at City Hall in Manhattan. A temporary bus service to the New York City Subways Pelham Bay Park station was established to transport people to the house, Although staffers and newspaper reporters alike complained because of the mansion&#39;s remoteness, La Guardia liked the house so much that he decided to stay for a week longer than he originally anticipated. La Guardia and his staff left on September 4.</p><br>
<p>La Guardia used the Bartow Mansion as a summer City Hall only in 1936; during the next several years, he moved his summertime offices to Queens. His successors did not use summertime City Halls. and the club hosted a tour of the house in 1941 to raise money for the British during World War II.</p><br>
<h3>Use as museum</h3><br>
<h4>1940s to 1970s</h4><br>
<p>Following World War II, the IGC was no longer allowed to export or import plants, so it turned its efforts to renovating the house. NYC Parks, the Museum of the City of New York, Brooklyn Museum, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art assisted with the renovation. Initially, the Bartow Mansion Museum consisted of only four rooms: the entrance hall, dining room, parlor, and second-floor master bedroom. The IGC re-furnished the house with the assistance of the three larger museums&#39; staff. Initially, the house was open as a museum only on Tuesdays and Saturdays. Club members, who could visit at any time, had to cover their shoes with rubber covers to avoid damaging the rugs.</p><br>
<p>The house was renamed the Bartow–Pell Mansion in 1959, in honor of the original landowners. 11, or 12 rooms.</p><br>
<p>The Bartow–Pell Mansion Museum was still open to the public three days a week in the 1970s. The museum saw few visitors because of its remoteness (a Los Angeles Times article from 1975 wrote that "the building is largely deserted"), but its proximity to population centers made the estate vulnerable to trespassers. Mary Means Huber, the mansions curator in the late 20th century, refurbished a second-floor sitting room after joining the museum in the late 1970s. Under Hubers tenure, the museum, whose collection largely consisted of items borrowed from other museums, began buying its own furnishings.</p><br>
<h4>1980s and 1990s</h4><br>
<p>The museum began hosting educational programs, which attracted 1,500 students annually within three years. The brickwork and wooden floors of the mansions carriage house had become degraded, Jan Hird Pokorny was hired to carry out the carriage houses renovation. As a precondition of the state grant, museum officials had to raise an equivalent amount; the museum had raised $110,000 from NYC Parks and $150,000 from several donors and foundations. The Bartow-Pell Landmark Fund also received $6,000 to create a cutaway model of the carriage house.</p><br>
<p>The stabilization of the carriage house had been completed by 1989. The house was still obscure; the New York Daily News wrote the same year that the Bartow–Pell Mansion was "possibly the least-known of all the historic houses in the Bronx". The Bartow–Pell Mansion was one of the founding members of the Historic House Trust, established in 1989. Students from Brooklyn College conducted excavations around the house&#39;s site between 1990 and 1992, and several hundred trees were planted just north of the mansion in 1992. The carriage house was officially rededicated in 1993 after its renovation was complete.</p><br>
<h4>2000s to present</h4><br>
<p>The IGC repainted the rooms in the late 1990s and early 2000s and expanded its collection during that time. By 2002, the museum&#39;s new director Robert Engel planned to renovate the entrance, demolish the parking lot, and clear a site between the carriage house and garden. Adventures in Preservation started funding the preservation of the Bartow–Pell Mansion in 2008; the same year, the IGC became the Bartow-Pell Conservancy.</p><br>
<p>The Bartow–Pell Mansion Museum participated in a 2012 competition administered by Partners in Preservation (a partnership between the National Trust for Historic Preservation and American Express). After a social-media campaign that attracted participants from as far as Australia and Sweden, Mark K. Morrison Associates was hired to rebuild the garden, add new plantings, and restore the gardens gates. The gardens were redesigned using photographs of Delano & Aldrichs original garden. In addition, the roof was repaired in 2012 following Hurricane Sandy, and the Historic House Trust hired Fifty-Three Renovations in 2013 to restore the mansion&#39;s interior. and that work was finished the next year.</p><br>
<p>The attic was opened to the public in June 2018. The Bartow–Pell Mansion Museum received 20,000 visitors annually by 2019. The mansion was closed temporarily in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, although the mansion had live-in caretakers who continued to maintain the property.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<h3>Mansion</h3><br>
<p>It is not known who designed the Bartow–Pell Mansion, There are unproven claims that Lafever designed the mansion, in part because he designed a church that Robert Bartow&#39;s brother attended. A. J. Davis and Martin E. Thompson were also cited as the possible architects of the structure. The interiors are designed in the Federal style. Along with the Van Cortlandt House, the Bartow–Pell Mansion is one of two remaining manor houses in the Bronx.</p><br>
<h4>Exterior</h4><br>
<p>The house is oriented on a north-south axis, which was sourced from the surrounding area. The exterior walls are at least 2 ft thick, allowing the mansion to remain cool even during the summer. There is a painted cornice at the top of the facade, as well as beveled quoins at each corner.</p><br>
<p>The western facade, facing Shore Road, was decorated with iron balconies, shutters, and window trimmings. The main entrance, on the western facade, is through a set of double doors flanked by a protruding iron balustrade. There is an empty niche above the double doors. The eastern facade, facing Long Island Sound, has iron balconies on the first and second stories, with windows that open onto the balconies. All of the balconies are made of elaborately decorated iron and are painted black. The large windows and the design of the stonework were typical of structures built in the area during the late 1830s and early 1840s.</p><br>
<h4>Interior</h4><br>
<p>The interior of the first floor is arranged symmetrically around the west-east axis. The entrance leads to a square central hall. Within this hall is a curving elliptical stairway that ascends to the attic and descends to the basement. The stairway has a balustrade with turned wood balusters and a newel post with a volute; it is illuminated by a clerestory window at the attic. The hallway itself has a plasterwork cornice and a rosette on the ceiling. On either wall are window openings and doorways, each of which is flanked by paneled pilasters and topped by a wooden pediment. Decorations such as eagles and depictions of Cupid are placed within the pilasters, while the tops of each pilaster depict honeysuckles and acanthus leaves. When the house was renovated in 1915, the halls had white woodwork and mahogany doors.</p><br>
<p>At the eastern end of the central hall is a niche flanked by doorways, which in turn lead to two elaborate, symmetrical parlors (a dining room and a drawing room) on the eastern side of the first floor. Both rooms contain fireplaces with marble mantelpieces; the shelves of each mantelpiece are supported by brackets with palmettes. The center of each room&#39;s ceiling contains a rosette that is more ornate than that in the central hallway.</p><br>
<p>To the right of the central hall, one door leads to another door that connects with a small sitting room. Both doorways have paneled pilasters and wooden pediments akin to those in the central hall, and the sitting room itself has a black marble mantelpiece. To the left of the central hall, a similar set of doorways leads to a smaller dining room, which shares design features with the sitting room. The small dining room hosted luncheons and breakfasts. There is also a kitchen that is shared by the main museum and a separate caretaker&#39;s apartment.</p><br>
<p>The second floor contains four bedrooms. One of the bedrooms, known as "Clarinas Room" after one of the Bartows daughters, was used by at least one of the familys three daughters. Another bedroom, the nursery wing, is not publicly accessible. There is also a two-bedroom apartment for the houses live-in caretaker on the second floor. The third floor, also known as the attic, was used as a servants&#39; quarters. The basement contained a wine cellar.</p><br>
<p>After the house was renovated by the IGC in 1915, the right or south wing of the house contained an "orangery" for serving tea. The orangery, also described as a conservatory, was described by Harpers Bazaar as having French windows, white walls, cement floors, and a domed ceiling. One of the smaller rooms in the northern wing was turned into a secondary reception room with a green, black, and coral color scheme, while another room became a boardroom with gray walls and black marble mantel. A stair led to the IGCs writing room and library on the northern wing&#39;s second floor.</p><br>
<h3>Carriage house</h3><br>
<p>The carriage house was built no later than 1842 and is the last remaining outbuilding on the Bartow–Pell Mansion&#39;s site. The stable was constructed of the same locally sourced stone as the main mansion. On the front or west facade is an elliptical brick arch flanked by a rectangular window with a brick frame and stone lintel.</p><br>
<p>Inside the carriage house was the stable hands home, vehicular storage, and the hayloft. Originally, the carriage houses main level had a carriage room, stalls, and harness room. Each stall was no more than 5 ft wide and had a gutter to drain away horses&#39; urine into the cellar. The attic contained the hayloft and could be accessed only via a ladder in the stall area. The cellar contained a cistern and two disconnected rooms.</p><br>
<h2>Operations</h2><br>
<p>The New York City Department of Parks and Recreation owns the house. The mansion and garden are operated by the Bartow-Pell Conservancy, The museum itself is operated by the Bartow Pell Landmark Fund, which has been listed as a tax-exempt nonprofit organization since October 1975., the mansion operates as a museum three days a week; The house is not wheelchair-accessible, as the main entrance can only be accessed by a short flight of steps, and there is no elevator.</p><br>
<h3>Collection and exhibits</h3><br>
<p>In the mid-20th century, many of the mansion&#39;s furnishings were displayed on loan from larger museums.</p><br>
<p>In the 1970s, the museum began acquiring items for its own collection.</p><br>
<p>Some of the mansions modern-day furnishings include the desk of Aaron Burr, who married a distant Bartow relative, Theodosia. The Lannuier bed, which has a white-and-orange canopy, also remains in the collection. a fire screen with desk, two side chairs, and a rosewood barometer. The three rooms on the carriage houses main floor are outfitted with exhibits, while the carriage houses lower level contains an education gallery and an architecture and transportation gallery. and an exhibit of objects relating to the houses history in 2014.</p><br>
<h3>Events and programming</h3><br>
<p>Starting in 1984, the museum has hosted educational programs. The programming is largely targeted toward elementary school students. The museum also operates after-school programs and a summer camp for children. Visitors can see the museum without needing to book in advance, The museum has also provided local-history programs.</p><br>
<p>In the Bartow–Pell Mansion Museums early years, the Garden Club hosted a variety of events to raise money, including tours, autumn festivals, and fashion shows with tea. The mansion also hosted debutante balls, weddings, cotillions, and Christmas sales. architectural tours, St. Nicholas Day Festivals, Open House New York events, and Halloween tours. The mansion has also hosted recurring events such as the Friends of Pelham Bay Parks autumn galas, Historic House Festivals, and movie nights.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<p>In the 1880s, the New-York Tribune wrote that the mansion "has the solid and substantial appearance of an English country-house", declaring it to be one of the best country estates in Pelham Bay Park. After the mansion was converted to a clubhouse in 1915, a writer for Harper&#39;s Bazaar said that the mansion "will no longer be a reproach to the City of New York". Another critic wrote for The Sun that the house "is full of interest and charm to all who delight in perfectly proportioned rooms, genuine wood carving over doors, beautiful mantels, and the best kind of elegant simplicity". A 1944 book said that the house "in its completeness, its elegance, and its beauty, is the product of a designer of great skill". A reporter wrote in 1975 that the ornate and expansive interiors "provided a fitting setting for the life of" its residents.</p><br>
<p>In 1947, a year after the house was converted into a museum, a writer for The Christian Science Monitor said that both the Garden Club and Mrs. Eliot Tuckerman should be credited "for vision and persistence in restoring the beautiful old Bartow Mansion in Pelham Bay Park, not only to usefulness, but to be open to the public". A writer from the same newspaper described the mansion as "almost buried treasure" in 1987, The Washington Post called the house "an exquisite enclave of peace and history, little-known to New Yorkers". In the 2000s, a Christian Science Monitor writer described the house and grounds as a "further challenge to the hard-boiled reputation of the Bronx" and a remnant of the boroughs rural past, while Mimi Sheraton of the Times said that the house and gardens were both evidence of its occupants luxurious lifestyle and a reminder that none of the other mansions in the area remained.</p><br>
<p>The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated the mansions exterior as a New York City landmark in 1966. The LPC held hearings in 1975 to determine whether the Bartow–Pell Mansions first-floor interior should be designated as a landmark. The LPC designated the interiors of the Bartow–Pell Mansion, Federal Hall&#39;s rotunda, and the Morris–Jumel Mansion as landmarks on May 26, 1975, and the New York City Board of Estimate ratified these designations that July. The mansion became a National Historic Landmark on December 8, 1976, and the IGC received a "certificate of proof" for the National Historic Landmark designation the next year. The exterior-landmark designation was extended in 1978 to cover the carriage house, gardens, and Pell family graveyard; the expanded designation covers 60 acre of the park.</p><br>
<p>Washington Square West is a neighborhood in Center City, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. The neighborhood roughly corresponds to the area between 7th and Broad Streets and between Chestnut and South Streets, bordering on the Independence Mall tourist area directly northeast, Market East to the north, Old City and Society Hill to the East, Bella Vista directly south, Hawthorne to the southwest, and mid-town Philadelphia and Rittenhouse Square to the west. The area takes its name from Washington Square, a historic urban park in the northeastern corner of the neighborhood. In addition to being a desirable residential community, it is considered a hip, trendy neighborhood that offers a diverse array of shops, restaurants, and coffee houses. Washington Square West contains many gay-friendly establishments, especially in the gay village area of the neighborhood commonly known as the Gayborhood, which hosts annual events celebrating LGBT culture in Philadelphia, including OutFest.</p><br>
<p>Philadelphias Antique Row lies in the area, as does the nations oldest hospital, Pennsylvania Hospital, and Philadelphia&#39;s oldest Jewish burial ground, Mikveh Israel Cemetery. Educational and medical facilities associated with Thomas Jefferson University, a leading regional medical university and health care center, are located within the neighborhood. The one-time headquarters of the former Curtis Publishing Company and the University of the Arts lie at the edges of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>Washington Square Wests real estate is mixed commercial, residential and service industries, characterized by two, three, and four-story rowhouses interspersed with condominiums, mid-rise apartments, hospitals and offices with ground-floor retail. The neighborhood follows William Penns original grid layout for the city, with many one-lane and pedestrian side streets added later as the population became denser. In addition to the block-sized Washington Square Park to the East, the neighborhood contains the smaller Kahn Park, named after the Philadelphia architect Louis Kahn who resided in the neighborhood.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name "Washington Square West" came into official use in the late 1950s and early 1960s as part of Edmund Bacons comprehensive plan for Center City. In this plan, the south-east quadrant of center city was split into Washington Square East (more commonly known as Society Hill) and Washington Square West. Both neighborhoods were scheduled for urban renewal by Philadelphias City Planning Commission and Redevelopment Authority. After a period of decline in the early 20th century, city officials hoped that redevelopment would clean up the neighborhood and clear blighted areas.</p><br>
<p>After large-scale renewal of Washington Square East/Society Hill in the early 1960s, the Philadelphia Redevelopment Authority turned to Washington Square West. In the late 1960s, the Redevelopment Authority bought and demolished buildings and, by the mid-1970s, owned one-fifth of the neighborhood. By this time, however, federal money available for urban renewal had declined and the city was no longer able to fund the renewal of Washington Square West. Buildings razed by the city in the 1960s and 1970s were left as empty lots and the neighborhood was left in a state of decline.</p><br>
<p>Through the late 1970s and 1980 began a slow recovery without the aid of the large-scale redevelopment that had occurred in Society Hill. The 1990s saw a shift in the neighborhood as Mayor Ed Rendell encouraged investment in Center City and gentrification began to take hold. By the end of the 1990s and early 2000s, the neighborhood had transformed into an economically vital community. In 2003, construction began on what was to be (for a time) the city&#39;s tallest apartment building, The St. James. The structure also incorporates the 1869 Philadelphia Savings Fund Society Building and the facades of York Row, a series of antique townhomes.</p><br>
<p>The Washington Square West Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1984. The 61 acre area encompasses 450 contributing buildings. Located in the district and separately listed are the Clinton Street Historic District, Roberts-Quay House, and Portico Row.</p><br>
<h2>The Gayborhood</h2><br>
<p>The area approximately bounded by Chestnut, Pine, Juniper and 11th streets within Washington Square West is known as The Gayborhood. It is so-named because of its large concentration of LGBT-friendly small businesses, services, restaurants, and gay bars. It was also a red light district and center of Philadelphias gay bathhouse culture in the 1970s and 1980s. The area is the location for Philadelphias annual OutFest: National Coming Out Day celebration. On 18 April 2007, the city of Philadelphia officially recognized the area by adding 36 gay pride rainbow flag symbols to street signs within the Gayborhood area. 32 additional signs were added in June 2010. On 25 June 2015, rainbows, indicating LGBT pride, were painted onto crosswalks at the intersection of 13th and Locust streets.</p><br>
<p>Its success as a city neighborhood has led to several attempts at large-scale private development in the Gayborhood in the 2000s. In 2002, developer Tony Goldman attempted to change 13th Street and its surroundings into the "Blocks Below Broad" or "B3", with the launch of several new retail establishments. The attempt failed but was repeated in 2006 by a merchants association organized by James McManaman. While the organization has attempted to re-brand the neighborhood "Midtown Village" and launched new retail establishments along 13th Street, long-time residents, professionals, and proprietors refer to the area as the Gayborhood or Center City. In 2019, the Gayborhood saw its first LGBTQ landmark with the addition to the city historic register of the Camac Baths, which was a meeting place for gay and bisexual men as early as the 1930s. The nomination provides a history of the bathhouse and its LGBTQ associations, which include Christopher Isherwood.</p><br>
<p>LeDroit Park  is a neighborhood in Washington, D.C. located immediately southeast of Howard University. Its borders include Florida Avenue NW, Bryant Street NW, Georgia Avenue NW, and 2nd Street NW.LeDroit Park is known for its history and 19th century protected architecture. The community&#39;s diversity entices new residents to the community, as well as its close proximity to the Shaw–Howard University Metro station and many dining options.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The neighborhood was founded in 1873 by Amzi Barber, a businessman who served on the board of trustees of neighboring Howard University. Barber named the neighborhood after his father-in-law, LeDroict Langdon, but dropped the ⟨c⟩.</p><br>
<p>As one of the first suburbs of Washington, LeDroit Park was developed and marketed as a "romantic" neighborhood with narrow tree-lined streets that bore the same names as the trees that shaded them, differing from the street names used in the rest of the city. Extensive focus was placed on the landscaping of this neighborhood, as developers spent a large sum of money to plant flower beds and trees to attract high-profile professionals from the city. Originally a whites-only neighborhood, LeDroit Park was even gated with guards to promote security for its residents. Efforts by many, especially multiple actions by students from Howard University, led to the integration of the area. Between 1886 and 1891, what newspapers called a "fence war" between LeDroit Park residents and "intruders" seeking a corridor from Howard Town to downtown unfolded. "With the opening of the streets, the park soon lost its former characteristics and became a part of the city with all its advantages and disadvantages."</p><br>
<p>By the 1940s, LeDroit Park became a major focal point for the African-American elite as many prominent figures resided there. Griffith Stadium, the home of the Washington Redskins and Washington Senators was also located here until 1965, when the Howard University Hospital was built where it used to stand. Le Droit Park includes Anna J. Cooper Circle, named for the education pioneer.</p><br>
<h3>Historic District</h3><br>
<p>Today, the neighborhood&#39;s historic value is officially recognized as the LeDroit Park Historic District. The historic district includes the Mary Church Terrell House, a USA National Historic Landmark. The neighborhood was awarded a place on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.</p><br>
<h3>Heritage Trail</h3><br>
<p>On October 17, 2015, the was opened by Cultural Tourism DC. Featuring 16 signs, the 90-minute walking tour chronicles the history of the neighborhood and its residents. The Trail begins where Florida Avenue, 6th and T Streets, NW meet at the "gateway" to LeDroit Park.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>One of LeDroit Parks more recognizable features is its Victorian mansions, houses and row-houses, designed by architect James McGill. None of the original 64 homes McGill designed in LeDroit Park were identical and most were built between 1873 and 1877. Today, 50 of the original homes remain. McGill was also a member of the LeDroit Park Property Owners Association, a precursor to the LeDroit Park Civic Association, which is active today. LeDroits protected housing stock includes 12 different styles of homes.</p><br>
<h2>Public spaces and art</h2><br>
<p>When the Gage-Eckington School Elementary School closed, residents successfully lobbied the city to tear it down and convert it into a park, which opened in 2011 as The Park at LeDroit.</p><br>
<p>Murals are painted on many walls throughout the neighborhood. This Is How We Live was commissioned by the DC Commission on the Arts & Humanities to be painted by artist Garin Baker. The mural shows the African-American heritage of the neighborhood, the changing community and landscape and historical and architectural scenes from the past and present. At the dedication on December 13, 2008, Mayor Adrian M. Fenty is quoted as describing the mural as serving to</p><br>
<p>... visually engage residents through a beautiful neighborhood mural that depicts the unique landscapes, people and images of the historic LeDroit Park community. The mural will become a prominent landmark in the neighborhood for years to come.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>General William Birney – Civil War veteran owned the stately mansion on Anna J. Cooper Circle. (T & Second Street)</p><br>
<p>Senator Edward Brooke – First African-American to win the senate seat by popular vote, was born in this house in 1919. (1938 Third Street)</p><br>
<p>Dr. Ralph J. Bunche – The first African-American to receive the Nobel Peace prize, for his mediation in Palestine; resided in LeDroit Park during his professorship at Howard University. — (No address found)</p><br>
<p>General Benjamin O. Davis Sr. – The first African-American general. Father of Benjamin O. Davis Jr. commander of the World War II Tuskegee airmen. (No address found)</p><br>
<p>Hon. Oscar De Priest – First Black congressmen after reconstruction, lived here for his three terms in office. (419 U Street)</p><br>
<p>Paul Laurence Dunbar – Black poet laureate and Howard University alumnus. (321 U Street)</p><br>
<p>Duke Ellington – jazz legend, lived in the neighborhood with his family during his early childhood. (420 Elm Street)</p><br>
<p>Major Christian Fleetwood – One of the first Blacks to be awarded the Medal of Honor. (319 U Street)</p><br>
<p>Julia West Hamilton – Civic leader and member of N.A.C.W. (320 U Street)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Jesse Jackson – Civil rights activist and founder of the Rainbow/PUSH Coalition. (Corner of Fourth & T Streets)</p><br>
<p>Ernest Everett Just – Professor in biology, researcher in biogenetics with significant contributions to zoology and biogenetics. (412 T Street)</p><br>
<p>Dr. Jesse Lawson and Dr. Anna J. Cooper – Both prominent educators who founded Frelinghuysen University to educate Blacks working-class adults. Lawson also was a Lawyer (Howard University Law, 1881) who advocated for the rights of poor D.C. residents. (201 T Street)</p><br>
<p>Mary Church Terrell – Heiress and activist for civil rights and woman&#39;s suffrage. (326 T Street, National Historic Landmark)</p><br>
<p>Walter Washington – the first mayor of DC elected under home rule. (408 T Street)</p><br>
<p>Clarence Cameron White – A prominent educator in fine arts and Howard alumni (No address found)</p><br>
<p>Dr. Garnet C. Wilkinson – Superintendent of Colored Schools during segregation. (406 U Street)</p><br>
<p>John W. Garland &ndash; Former president of Central State University in Wilberforce, Ohio. (near the corner of 6th and U Streets)</p><br>
<p>Fort Saint-Frédéric was a French fort built on Lake Champlain to secure the region against British colonization and control the lake. It was located in modern New York State across the lake from modern Vermont at the town of Crown Point, New York. The fort, whose construction began in 1734, was never attacked, and was destroyed in 1759 before the advance of a large  British army under General Jeffery Amherst.</p><br>
<p>The British constructed the much larger Fort Crown Point next to the ruins of Saint-Frédéric; the new fort also never came under attack. Its small garrison was captured in 1775 in the early days of the American Revolutionary War, after which Fort Crown Point also fell into ruin. The fort sites at Crown Point were preserved in the Crown Point State Historic Site in 1910, and both ruins are National Historic Landmarks.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction was started in 1734 by Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegros de Léry. When complete, Fort Saint-Frédéric walls were twelve feet thick and four stories high, with cannons on each level. It was manned by hundreds of officers and troops, principally from Les Compagnies Franches de la Marine.</p><br>
<p>The fort gave the French control of the frontier between New France and the British colonies to the south. As the only permanent stronghold in the area until the building of Fort Carillon at Ticonderoga starting in 1755, many French raids originated there and it was a target of British operations in the French and Indian War. Constructed on the tip of a strategic peninsula at a narrows in the lake, the cannons of Fort Saint-Frédéric and the later British Fort Crown Point were capable of halting all north-south travel on the lake.</p><br>
<p>In 1759 when British forces moved against Fort Saint-Frédéric during the war, the retreating French destroyed it. The British Army and provincial militia then built Fort Crown Point, a vast fortification just southwest of the ruins of the French fort, starting in the fall of 1759. At the same time they built a fleet to gain military control of Lake Champlain and the 77-mile-long Crown Point Road across the Green Mountains to reach the Connecticut River.</p><br>
<p>Since 1910 the remains of both forts on the Crown Point peninsula are part of the Crown Point State Historic Site. Both are also USA National Historic Landmarks. Fort Saint-Frédéric was registered as a National Historic Landmark in 1962.</p><br>
<p>Fort Carroll is a 3.4 acre artificial island and abandoned hexagonal sea fort in the middle of the Patapsco River, just south of Baltimore, Maryland. It is named for Charles Carroll of Carrollton , a signer of the Declaration of Independence.</p><br>
<h2>Design and construction</h2><br>
<p>In 1847, the State of Maryland permitted the United States War Department to construct a fort in the shallow water of Sollers Point Flats to protect the city of Baltimore. Fort Carroll was important for the defense of Baltimore—before the forts construction, Fort McHenry just outside the city was the only military defensive structure between Baltimore and the Chesapeake Bay. The fort was part of the "Permanent System" or Third System construction program, which aimed to defend America&#39;s most important ports.</p><br>
<p>Then Brevet-Colonel Robert E. Lee designed the hexagonal structure and supervised the construction, which the USA Army Corps of Engineers commenced in 1848. The fort received its name on October 8, 1850. In 1852, Lee left Baltimore to become Superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point.</p><br>
<p>In 1853, a lighthouse, now abandoned, was built on the ramparts to aid navigation into Baltimore Harbor. In 1898, a new lighthouse was built, which is still seen today. It was automated in 1920 and discontinued operations sometime before 1945.</p><br>
<p>The original design foresaw the fort armed with 225 cannons on three levels. However, in April 1861, at the American Civil War outbreak, Fort Carrolls walls were still less than half the planned height of thirty feet. Only five gun platforms were ready, and only two were armed. Still, the Army placed about thirty cannons and occupied the fort throughout the war. In April 1864, torrential rains flooded the forts magazines, which led the Army to move all the powder and ammunition to Fort McHenry.</p><br>
<h2>Spanish–American War</h2><br>
<p>When the United States entered the Spanish–American War in 1898, the Army again defended the fort, although the batteries were completely obsolete by then. The Army, therefore, commenced the construction of modern concrete gun emplacements following the Board of Fortifications designs. The Army created three batteries: Battery Towson (two 12" barbette carriage guns), Battery Heart (two 5-inch M1897 guns on balanced pillar mounts) and Battery Augustin (two 3" balanced pedestal-mount guns).</p><br>
<p>The new batteries were ready by September 1900, well after the war&#39;s end. They received their names on March 30, 1903.</p><br>
<h2>World War I and afterwards</h2><br>
<p>After World War I broke out, in 1917, the Army removed the guns from Battery Heart, and in 1918, those from Battery Towson to use elsewhere. By 1920, all guns had been removed from the fort.</p><br>
<p>In March 1921, the Army officially abandoned Fort Carroll and moved whatever military equipment was left to nearby Fort Howard. The War Department declared the island excess property in 1923 but took no immediate steps to sell the land. A variety of proposals for the use of the island were advanced, including a prison, as well as a 1923 plan advanced by Baltimore mayor William Broening to place an electric "Welcome to Baltimore" sign on the island, accompanied by a statue of Lord Baltimore.</p><br>
<p>In World War II, the Army used the fort as a firing range. It also served as a checkpoint for vessels.</p><br>
<p>In May 1958, Baltimore attorney Benjamin Eisenberg purchased the island for, intending to put a casino there, but development plans never materialized. The fort is now an involuntary park. It is also a site for occasional urban explorations (which constitute trespass). In 2013, Preservation Maryland placed Fort Carroll on its list of threatened historic properties. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2015.</p><br>
<p>On April 19, 2024, the third temporary alternate channel established after the collapse of the Francis Scott Key Bridge was named after the fort, the beginning of which is to its immediate west.</p><br>
<p>Oak Ridge Cemetery is an American cemetery in Springfield, Illinois.</p><br>
<p>The Lincoln Tomb, where Abraham Lincoln, his wife and all but one of their children lie, is here, as are the graves of other prominent Illinois figures. Opened in 1860, it was the third and is now the only public cemetery in Springfield, after the City Cemetery and Hutchinson.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery was designed by William Saunders in the Rural Cemetery Landscape Lawn style. The location was chosen for its topography, including rolling hills, key to this style. The many eponymous oak trees cover a ridge bordering low-lying Spring Creek, a landscape unusual in central Illinois. The newest, southwest section opened after 1945. Its design follows the Memorial Park style, in which roadways are wide enough for motor vehicles.</p><br>
<p>Oak Ridge has a Korean War memorial, the World War II Illinois Veterans Memorial and the Illinois Vietnam Veterans Memorial. The Springfield and Central Illinois African-American History Museum is adjacent.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>William Henry Bissell</p><br>
<p>Jacob Bunn</p><br>
<p>John Whitfield Bunn</p><br>
<p>Daniel Pope Cook</p><br>
<p>John Cook</p><br>
<p>Shelby Moore Cullom</p><br>
<p>Jesse K. Dubois</p><br>
<p>Ninian Edwards, only governor of the Illinois Territory</p><br>
<p>William Lee D. Ewing</p><br>
<p>Nellie Grant – daughter of President Ulysses S. Grant</p><br>
<p>William Herndon</p><br>
<p>Elijah Iles</p><br>
<p>William Jayne</p><br>
<p>John L. Lewis – President of the United Mine Workers from 1919 to 1960</p><br>
<p>Abraham Lincoln – sixteenth President of the United States during the Civil War</p><br>
<p>Mary Todd Lincoln – Abraham&#39;s wife</p><br>
<p>Fleetwood Lindley – the last person to have looked upon Lincoln&#39;s face in September 1901</p><br>
<p>Vachel Lindsay</p><br>
<p>John Alexander McClernand</p><br>
<p>Alfred Orendorff</p><br>
<p>John Carroll Power – first custodian of Lincoln&#39;s Tomb</p><br>
<p>Alexander Starne – Illinois Secretary of State and Illinois Treasurer</p><br>
<p>John T. Stuart – USA Congressman, lawyer, law partner of Abraham Lincoln</p><br>
<p>John Riley Tanner</p><br>
<p>Arthur Harrison Wilson (Medal of Honor)</p><br>
<p>Fort Meigs was a United States fortification along the Maumee River in what is now Perrysburg, Ohio during the War of 1812. The British Army, supported by Tecumseh&#39;s Confederacy, failed to capture the fort during the siege of Fort Meigs. It is named in honor of Ohio governor Return J. Meigs Jr., for his support in providing General William Henry Harrison with militia and supplies for the line of forts along the Old Northwest frontier.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction of the fort started in February 1813 by soldiers under the command of General William Henry Harrison (future president) at a site where present-day Perrysburg, Ohio developed. It was to provide a supply depot and staging point for US military operations in Canada that would also command the rapids of the Maumee River. The remnants of the British Fort Miami were across the river downstream, to the northeast. The winter climate was harsh, and the landscape unforgiving. A USA sentry froze to death during his two hours of guard duty.</p><br>
<p>The first siege: On May 1, 1813, British allied forces, under General Henry Proctor and Chief Tecumseh, opened a bombardment of the fort, which had mustered 1,200 regulars and militia, and laid siege. Reinforcements reached the fort on May 4, increasing its garrison to 2,800. Early on the morning of May 5, a detachment from Clays brigade under Colonel William Dudley landed from boats on the north bank of the river, stormed the British batteries on the north bank and spiked the guns. Coming under fire from Indians in the woods, part of the Kentuckian force pursued Tecumsehs men, who led them deeper into the forest. In the woods, the disorganized Kentuckians suffered heavy casualties in confused fighting. Nearly 550 were captured, and of Dudleys 866 officers and men, only 150 returned to the fort. This became known as "Dudleys Massacre" or "Dudley&#39;s Defeat".</p><br>
<p>The Shawnee, Delaware (Lenape) and other Native American warriors attacked any wood-gathering parties sent out from the fort. Harrison held out against the British by using a pair of 14-foot high embankments ("traverses") thrown up inside the walls along the length of the interior to absorb the incoming British shells. Proctor abandoned the siege on May 9, 1813 and retreated to Detroit.</p><br>
<p>The second siege: Having mobilized the garrison into an army, Harrison left General Green Clay in command of the fort, much reduced in size from its original layout. In July 1813, the British attempted to appease their allies by again besieging Fort Meigs. The Indians staged a mock battle to lure the garrison out. The Americans, however, saw through the ploy. After the failed siege attempt, the British moved on to Fort Stephenson, where Fremont, Ohio stands today. That attack also failed, causing heavy British losses and forcing their retreat to Canada. Once the British had retreated from the area for good, General Harrison ordered Fort Meigs dismantled. In its place, a small, square stockade was constructed to serve as a supply base and to protect the Maumee rapids. The Treaty of Fort Meigs was signed there in 1817, and the post was abandoned that same year.</p><br>
<p>In 1864, brothers Timothy and Thomas Hayes became the owners of the land on which the fort had stood and were instrumental in preserving it in memory and honor of the men who fought the battles. The heirs of the Hayes brothers sold the property to the state in 1907. On September 1, 1908, the large obelisk monument that can be seen from outside the fort was dedicated by a local veteran of the Civil War to the fallen soldiers of Fort Meigs. The Ohio Historical Society reconstructed the fort in the late 1960s, and its museum, featuring numerous artifacts uncovered during excavation in connection with the rebuilding, opened in 1974. It is a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Memorial</h2><br>
<p>As of 2024, Fort Meigs is the site of an Ohio State Memorial in Perrysburg, Ohio. The 65-acre (263,000 m) park includes the full-size 10-acre replica of the 1813 fort. Between 2000 and 2003 its wooden palisades were rebuilt with fresh timbers, the seven blockhouses were repaired, and exhibits or facilities built inside four of them. The $6.2 million renovation project also saw the museum replaced by a Museum and Education Center of 14,000 square feet that features 3,000 square feet of exhibits on Ohios role in the War of 1812, classrooms for student and adult workshops, and office and maintenance areas. The museum exhibit "Legacy of Freedom: Fort Meigs and the War of 1812" focuses on the themes of era, conflict, understanding and remembrance. These sections place the War of 1812 into the context of the times and explain Fort Meigs role in the conflict.</p><br>
<p>The original grand traverse is preserved within the interior of the fort, although erosion has reduced it from its original 14-foot height, and a reverse traverse was constructed to the original specifications by the OHS. Located at the corner of a nearby cemetery are the remains of an original mortar position laid by the British for use during the siege.</p><br>
<h2>Re-enactments</h2><br>
<p>Several re-enactments take place at Fort Meigs each year. They include:</p><br>
<p>First Siege, a battle re-enactment portraying the events of the siege of Fort Meigs in May 1813, complete with American and British infantry and artillery. This event is held on Memorial Day weekend and is followed on Monday by a ceremony commemorating the fallen soldiers.</p><br>
<p>Muster on the Maumee, a "timeline event" held at the fort on Father&#39;s Day weekend, includes military re-enactors from ancient Roman soldiers to the modern-era soldier.</p><br>
<p>Independence Day, a re-enactment portraying the events on the Fourth of July in 1813. It includes toasts and an 18-gun salute.</p><br>
<p>Garrison Ghost Walk, an event held on the last two weekends in October; a re-enactor guides visitors through the dark fort to tell ghost stories.</p><br>
<p>Rocheport, also known as Rocheport Historic District, is a historic district in Rocheport, Missouri. It dates from 1830.</p><br>
<p>Rocheport was a trading post for both settlers and Native Americans. After the purchase of the Louisiana Territory in 1803, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to lead an expedition to explore the western territories. On June 7, 1804, their journey led them to the convergence of the Missouri River and Moniteau Creek near the future settlement of Rocheport. Clark noted the features of the land, flora, fauna and native pictographs on the Moniteau Bluffs in his journal. Rocheport became a permanent settlement in the early 19th century.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.</p><br>
<p>Roi-Namur is an island in the north part of the Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands. Today it is a major part of the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site, hosting several radar systems used for tracking and characterizing missile reentry vehicles  and their penetration aids . A flooding event by wave overtopping made national news in the United States, with dramatic footage of water bursting through a door.</p><br>
<p>Roi-Namur is a military base of the United States, but is leased land from the Republic of the Marshall Islands. However, Defense of the Marshall Islands is the responsibility of the United States through a Compact of Free Association.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name of the new island is after the formerly separate islands Roi and Namur were joined by landfill. Roi is originally from Marshallese Ruot, while Namur is originally from Marshallese Nim̧ur.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Germany annexed the Marshalls in 1885 but did not put government officials on the islands until 1906, leaving island affairs to a group of powerful German trading companies. During WW1, the Japanese seized the Marshall Islands, later under the Treaty of Versailles, Japan formally took over after World War I under the League of Nations mandate. They colonised the Marshalls extensively, developing and fortifying large bases on many of the islands. Eventually using it to aid in their enormous Pacific invasion in December 1941. The Pacific war between the United States eventually reached the Marshall Islands in 1944.</p><br>
<p>Roi-Namur was the target of the USA 4th Marine Division in the Battle of Kwajalein, in February 1944. During the Japanese occupation, the two islands (Roi to the west (Marshallese: Ruot, ) and Namur to the east (Nim̧ur, )) were connected by a narrow neck of land and causeway. After the American occupation, US Navy SeaBees filled the area between the islands by December 1944; the two now joined islands are presently called Roi-Namur with a total area of about one square mile.</p><br>
<p>Roi-Namur was selected by DARPA as a host site for a series of radar experiments under the Project Defender umbrella, and Project PRESS in particular. These experiments intended to use radar means to distinguish an enemy RV from its penaids though the examination of the size, shape and velocity of the objects, as well as examining the wake they left in the upper atmosphere. By building on Roi-Namur, they were able to use the test shots being used by the US Army&#39;s Nike-X program installed on Kwajalein Island and Meck Island further to the south.</p><br>
<p>The island was flooded in December 2008 by a "massive wave" which swamped coastal roads. A similar flood from one or more rogue waves or sneaker wave damaged buildings and swamped runways, on 20 January 2024. The wave flooding event was a popular clip on social media and news sites in the United States.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Roi-Namur is home to an about 120 American and Marshallese employees of the Reagan Test Site.</p><br>
<p>The Roi side is the main housing area, with the retail and recreation facilities there. Activities on Roi-Namur range from a nine-hole golf course, saltwater swimming pool, scuba club, movie theater, volleyball, and basketball court. Roi hosts the Freeflight International Airport (Marshall Islands) with one runway for small planes that commute from Kwajalein bringing additional workers. Additional Marshallese daytime workers come via ferry from the island of Enniburr.</p><br>
<p>The Namur side is home to the ALCOR, ALTAIR, MMW and TRADEX radar tracking stations.</p><br>
<p>There is a small launch facility on Roi-Namur. Rockets launched here are usually sounding rockets that ascend beyond the atmosphere but have short ranges. There are crumbling remnants of Japanese blockhouses and pillboxes around Roi-Namur.</p><br>
<p>Marineland of Florida , one of Floridas first marine mammal parks, is billed as "the worlds first oceanarium". Marineland functions as an entertainment and swim-with-the-dolphins facility, and reopened to the public on March 4, 2006 . In 2011, the park was purchased by the Georgia Aquarium for a reported</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Beginnings</h3><br>
<p>Marineland was first conceived by W. Douglas Burden, Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney, Sherman Pratt, and Ilya Andreyevich Tolstoy (grandson of Leo Tolstoy) as an oceanarium that could be used to film marine life. A site was selected on the Atlantic Ocean south of St. Augustine, eventually known as the town of Marineland. The site of Marineland is within a 20,000 acre grant given to London barrister Levett Blackborne in 1767. The well-connected Blackborne, grandson of Sir Richard Levett, Lord Mayor of London, never settled his grant (nor even visited Florida), and eventually Blackborne&#39;s plantation was regranted to John Graham, a Georgia Loyalist fleeing the Revolutionary War. Ultimately, the land that is today Marineland was broken up over the years into smaller parcels.</p><br>
<p>Financing and construction presented challenges as Marineland was the first attempt at capturing and sustaining sea creatures. These challenges were overcome. Construction and engineering were carried out Arthur Franklin Perry Co. of Jacksonville. On June 23, 1938, "Marine Studios" (the name "Marineland of Florida" would later be adopted) began operations with its main attraction a bottlenose dolphin. Unexpectedly, over 20,000 tourists clogged Highway A1A to visit the new attraction. For many decades Marineland consisted of not only the oceanariums but several amenities including a motel (Marine Village Court, Marineland Motel and Quality Inn/Marineland); Dolphin Restaurant and Moby Dick Lounge; Periwinkle Snack Bar and Sandpiper Snack Bar; Marineland Marina; plus fruit shop and gift shop; and a pier at the north end of the facility. A Texaco service station was adjacent to the Periwinkle Snack Bar, and Greyhound Bus Lines stopped regularly during its St. Augustine to Daytona Beach run.</p><br>
<p>The total property area consisted of 125 acre sandwiched between the Atlantic Ocean and the Intracoastal Waterway. Originally planned for the St. Augustine area, residents of that community did not look favorably on the attraction being located there; thus the new site south of Matanzas Inlet was chosen. It is also said that Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney chose the upper east coast of Florida due to the less frequent occurrence of hurricanes compared to other parts of Florida.</p><br>
<p>There were two large tanks as the center piece of "Marine Studios" or as they were known as a Marine Studios coined name, oceanariums. Visitors upon entering would encounter the circular oceanarium from the south. The circular oceanarium nicknamed circ tank by staff was the home of dolphins and sometimes some groupers and pelicans. The circular oceanarium held 400,000 usgal of water circulated at 3,000 usgal per minute. This oceanarium was also 12 feet deep and 80 feet across. with some rocks laid in on the sandy bottom. The rectangular oceanarium, nicknamed "the rec tank" by staff, held 450,000 usgal of water circulated at 2,500 usgal a minute. This oceanarium was home for an assortment of fish both local and tropical, sharks, eels, turtles and other marine life. Its tank was 100 feet long and 40 feet wide at its widest point and required two cables, bolted to the walls, across the topside to assist with structural integrity.</p><br>
<p>The rectangular oceanarium was the largest of the Marine Studios tanks, it had two 12 feet deep sections, the northern and southern thirds, while the middle had a depth of 18 feet. The rectangular oceanarium was heated with an oil fired furnace down below deck to heat the tank during the cooler winter months to protect tropical fish. In keeping with the nautical theme of the facility a ships snorkel smokestack was on the top deck for the furnace below.</p><br>
<p>The two oceanariums were connected by "the flume", a shallow waterway between the two large tanks. The flume was gated to keep specimens in their respective tanks with water able to flow through the grated gates. The flume also was used anytime large animals needed to be moved to or from a transport vehicle. A large crane was built as part of the structure, from which nautical flags would fly, keeping the "marine" theme of the facility. Below deck, corridors surrounded the two oceanariums lined with portholes into the tanks with a central passageway on the lowest level connecting both tanks so visitors could move from one oceanarium to the other below deck. The Aquarist Office was located on the middle deck on the south side of the circular oceanarium. All of this was considered the original "Marine Studios" including a biological station, front ticket office, announcers&#39; booth (originally located on the top deck before being moved below deck on the central passageway), and other displays. Visitors coming in what was the original main entrance would walk under an arch that stood above a large slab of coquina rock with the words "Marine Studios 1938" on it in lettering, and up a walkway past the "Fudge Kitchen" to a ticket office at the south end of the Marine Studios structure. From there visitors could observe from the top deck of the tanks or wander the hallways below and observe through the numerous portholes in the walls of the tanks of both oceanariums.</p><br>
<p>The "porpoise stadium" with its show tank and holding tanks along with bleachers would be added in 1952 as the park rapidly expanded. The stadium would showcase "Flippy" the educated porpoise. During that time dolphins were locally known as porpoises even though a porpoise completely different type of marine mammal. The reasoning for this was not to confuse with the dauphin fish as well as it was widely used local slang at the time. The roof was added to the stadium in 1961 as the show and animals in it were expanded. Also in 1961, the name Marineland started being used as opposed to Marine Studios in marketing and promotion. Expansion continued as the main walkway had a roof added, then famous large arches were installed in 1968 with giant letters spelling out MARINELAND above the new stadium roof and allowed the facility to be seen from some distance off approaching north or south on A1A.</p><br>
<p>The top deck of the circular oceanarium was also reconfigured. An administration building in 1962 replacing an older one and a proper laboratory in 1953 were also constructed west of A1A as part of Marinelands growth in the 50s and 60s. Also through the 50s, maintenance and paint shops were constructed; this mostly built out the area immediately west of the "Marine Studios" structure. On the east side of A1A further additions included a large gift shop in 1954 and a fresh water exhibit built just east of the circular oceanarium in 1966. This fresh water habitat would see several uses over the years with displays of fresh water dolphins, manatees, and fresh water fish, then a conversion to salt water for "the shark nursery", a tank for smaller sharks. Eventually in the 1980s this would become "The Wonders of the Spring" showcasing fresh water fish found in Floridas springs. North of the Porpoise Stadium, a penguin display and a shallow tank were added in the area of what would be known as Whitney Park. The shallow tank saw several functions held dolphins for a while and eventually became a sea lion display with shows added in the early 1980s. Even though the park was now billing itself as Marineland, the name Marine Studios would stick for some time and the "Studios Department" which managed most of the park would last until the end of 1987.</p><br>
<p>Salt water for the tanks and oceanariums was brought in by sets of pipes that ran under the sand 50 feet out into the ocean. Two pump stations called "galleries" pumped the water from that pipe to a filtration plant. Then the sea water was circulated through the oceanariums and out into the Intracoastal. A dedicated team of pump crews maintained the system 24 hours a day, keeping a vigilant eye on water levels and pump operations. Water was treated by copper sulfate to help reduce algae growth with lab crews monitoring the amounts used. This method of treatment was of the groundbreaking discoveries by Marineland crews and scientists.</p><br>
<p>Having the grandson of Leo Tolstoy involved in the project helped Marineland become a very fashionable destination in its early days, prompting writers Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, John Dos Passos, and Ernest Hemingway to visit Moby Dicks Bar located there. Ms. Rawlings was married to Norton Baskin who at one time (1950s/early 1960s) was the operator and manager of the Dolphin Restaurant and the Moby Dick Lounge. The parks facilities were very popular with tourists and also used for filming numerous movies, including Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954) and Revenge of the Creature (1955).</p><br>
<p>The first dolphin trainer in the world, Adolph Frohn, started training dolphins and developed "dolphin shows", which became an additional draw in the early 1950s as Marineland became one of Florida&#39;s major attractions, attracting over 900,000 visitors per year with peak attendance in the mid-1970s. Further expansion westward occurred at this time, including expansion of the "Sandpiper Snack Bar", with other additions including the Playport playground, the "Citrus Shop", the "Beachcomber Gift Shop", the "Shell Museum" and the "Aquarius 3D Theater". A few exhibits were added as well, moving the electric eel show to the west side of the park from the east, all of these reached by winding landscaped pathways that crossed a network of brooks and streams on wooden bridges. A centerpiece was a statue of King Neptune with dolphins in one of the larger ponds.</p><br>
<p>Little known was a hippopotamus exhibit that was built in the woods west of the duck pond area. This was never opened to the public and sat dormant for years. Additional expansion on the ocean side through the 70s included Whitney Park north of the stadium, featuring a boardwalk, exhibits, and an observation deck. The University of Florida Lab was added along with a hall and dorms in the mid-1970s on the very northwest part of the property in 1972 and 1975. The hall dubbed "Whitney Hall" would become the location of Marineland employees&#39; annual Christmas parties, a tradition started in the early years of the attraction and continuing into the 1990s. To the south a large and expanded hotel operated by Quality Inn was built east of A1A south of the old hotel in 1976.</p><br>
<p>Divers using the Miller Dunn Style 3 Divinhood helmet would feed fish, eels, turtles and dolphins by hand and "jumpmasters" and trainers would conduct dolphin shows 6 times a day. Announcers would inform visitors of upcoming programs by ringing bells over the PA system and announcing the nautical time, translating it to standard time in keeping with the marine theme of the park. The pre-show and transition music played was also in keeping with the nautical theme: a combination of The Sailor&#39;s Hornpipe and Drunken Sailor instrumental mixes. The first show was presented at 9:30 am, with subsequent shows at 11:00 am, 12:30 pm, 2:00 pm, 3:30 pm and 4:50 pm (the time of the last show was shifted to 5:00 pm at some point). Each show started with the "jumping porpoises/dolphin show" on the top deck of the circular oceanarium. Here a "jumpmaster" would have dolphins leaping into the air.</p><br>
<p>When the show first started in the 1950s a platform was used, but then in the early 1970s Marineland purchased a Skyworker unit; this was essentially a bucket on a movable arm suspended from two arches that met above the tank. This device, common with utility trucks, was reportedly the first use of one upside down, another Marineland innovation. The Skyworker also used vegetable oil for its hydraulic systems, which was harmless to the dolphins. The jumpmaster could control the bucket by three levers and move it around where dolphins leaped up to 16 feet above the surface of the water. The show then would transition downstairs, announcers guiding the crowds to where a hard hat diver would descend into the oceanarium and feed the marine mammals by hand as visitors viewed through 188 portholes on two levels surrounding the tank.</p><br>
<p>The diving operation always consisted of two people, a diver in the water and a person on the top deck to manage the air hose and safety monitoring. Then the underwater show moved to the rectangular oceanarium with announcers guiding the crowd from one location to the next. The diver would transfer from one tank to the other above as visitors were guided via the hallways below to view the diver in the water with potentially dangerous sharks and moray eels among the fish in the rectangular tank. There were 120 portholes on split levels in which visitors could view the show. The show would then conclude with the crowd being directed to the stadium for the "educated porpoises" where dolphins went to dolphin "school" and demonstrated their skills, guided by a team of trainers.</p><br>
<p>Daily show staffing consisted of a jumpmaster, two staff divers, two announcers and a number of stadium trainers to manage the shows. Marineland staff, especially those who worked in the "Marine Studios" department, wore nautical attire as uniforms, with jumpmasters wearing sailor suits and announcers wearing uniforms that resembled those of sea captains. There were additional employees beyond show staff to keep things running; these included two aquarists, exhibit attendants, ticket takers, guides, custodians, pump crews, lab techs and tank cleaners as well as security.</p><br>
<p>The aquarist positions were actually supervisory and oversaw the operations of the Marine Studios department. Other departments also made Marineland work. These included the Stadium, lab, maintenance, water plant, gift shops, snack bar, theater, grounds crew, restaurant and administration. At one point Marineland was the largest employer in Flagler County with over 300 employees.</p><br>
<p>Other exhibits complemented the shows including "Wonders of the Sea" allowing a close up of marine specimens in aquariums, an electric eel demonstrations, a penguin and flamingo displays. Just east of the circular oceanarium was another tank that originally held fresh water dolphins, manatees then was used for a shark nursery for a while then was set up as fresh water spring in the 1980s. In between shows visitors could walk freely around the oceanariums and sometimes could even play "catch" using a basketball with a friendly dolphin on the top deck.</p><br>
<p>Another notable and unique item at Marineland was the fresh water system. Marineland of Florida operated a reverse osmosis water plant that converted salt water to fresh water. The water plant supplied the entire park and subsequent expansions as well as a waste water plant. Treated waste water was sprayed by a huge sprayer called a "rain bird" that was located behind the electric eel exhibit on the western side of the property. Marineland was quite far from any water utility service and had to make its own. Electric power was supplied by Florida Power and Light, however a large backup generator was on hand to keep critical systems running during extended power outages. When a power outage of even short duration occurred, the on duty pumpman was required to quickly restart the pumps or the tanks could start to drain. During a longer outage drains had to be closed to prevent the water from draining out. If an extended power outage occurred, the pumps could run on the backup generator, but many other systems could not.</p><br>
<p>Under the oceanariums a network of air and utility tunnels existed to allow crews access to valves and power cables. A large high wattage step down transformer was located directly under the circular oceanarium to help supply power to the Marine Studios facility.</p><br>
<p>The opening of Walt Disney World Resort in 1971 gave a major boost to the attractions annual attendance. However, Sea Worlds entry into the Florida market eventually had a very negative impact on Marineland from the late 1970s through 2009. Many publications erroneously note the peak attendance as having been 300,000. The break-even admission point was actually 400,000, even during the 1950s.</p><br>
<h3>Decline</h3><br>
<p>Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney, who was the major stockholder of the private company opted to sell the marine park in 1983 to a group of St. Augustine businessmen during the summer of that year. These new investors brought some new ideas to the park, and some didn&#39;t work very well.</p><br>
<p>Some of these new ideas actually did work and appeared to help the park. For a while the park held its own with fair attendance in the busier summer months with the ongoing traditional shows being complemented by a seasonal high dive show added in 1987 as well as other entertainment such a wandering magician to entertain guests and a sea lion show in Whitney Park. The show presentation order had been changed a few times during the mid 1980s in attempts to better accommodate visitors, with the first part still starting on the Top Deck then the stadium and ending underwater. There were a few experimental tweaks to this in 1985 and 1986 with one instance of the show starting in the underwater portion first.</p><br>
<p>In 1987 the show schedule was changed completely. The first show now started 30 minutes later at 10:00 am, then further shows at 11:30 am, 1:00 pm, 2:30 pm and the last show at 4:00 pm which cut out the sixth show. The show organization was also changed once again. Shows now started in the Stadium for the educated dolphins, then the jumping dolphins on the top deck of the circular oceanarium with crowds guided by the announcers. Then the show would move into the underwater feeding portions below deck at the circular and rectangular tanks as the hard hat divers would feed dolphins and marine creatures by hand. These new changes seemed to work well and actually helped visitors find the show easier. A sea lion show was also added in Whitney Park adding further entertainment to Marineland.</p><br>
<p>For a few years a Fourth of July event was held with fireworks at the beach. The event actually would be fairly well attended as locals sought to find a venue away from the crowded events of nearby displays. These events started in the mid 1980s and lasted into the mid 1990s.</p><br>
<p>Another large expansion occurred, the last one made to the original park, when a campground, affiliated with the Jellystone brand, was built on the southwest side of the property. The campground was equipped with a "ranger station" which served as a gas station and small store.</p><br>
<p>Attendance began to edge upward from 1985 through 1987, but significant changes were on the way. An administrative decision was made at the end of 1987 to implement large and radical changes in an attempt to modernize the attraction. The new scheme included the merger of the stadium and the studios departments into a department of shows. Historically, this was significant because the studios department had existed since the parks inception and was the last entity in Marineland to carry the "Marine Studios" name. The modernization plan included the retirement of the Miller Dunn Style 3 Divinhood helmets that had been in use since the first day of Marinelands operation. Marineland was the only place in Florida, if not the country, where these were used regularly. They were replaced with the phasing in of modern SCUBA equipment, with the last use of the Miller Dunn helmet occurring in early November 1987. The older nautical themed uniforms were replaced, staff was shuffled around, shows and other items were changed. Following these changes attendance began to decline, and along with poor management decisions and expensive schemes which yielded no return on investment, the ownership group was unable to meet their loan payments and the attraction was again put on the market. Ownership change and accompanying uncertainty was the staus quo from that point.</p><br>
<p>Into the 1990s, Marineland faced additional challenges from increased government inspections. New regulatory requirements were difficult to meet, increasing the burden on the cash-strapped park. In the later 1990s, because of the deteriorating financial situation many long-time employees were abruptly laid off leaving only a skeleton crew. The maintenance demands of the old park, due to years of neglected investment combined with damage caused by a series of hurricanes from 1999 through 2004, became too costly for the real estate investment group who owned it at the time. The facility began to sink into severe disrepair as the owners sought a buyer. The Skyworker unit used during top deck shows failed and sat useless, while the dolphin stadium also became unusable with large sections of it cordoned off.</p><br>
<p>Finally, through a convoluted deal involving junk bonds, the property was sold. The buyers planned to build timeshare condominiums on most of the ocean hammock land but were unable to finalize the plan. This effort resulted in bankruptcy for the buyers. In addition, the already-strapped oceanarium had been reconfigured as a non-profit foundation as part of the sale and was responsible for its own sustenance as well as repayment of the bond issue. Needed monies were not invested in repairs, and some features of the park deteriorated so badly they became safety hazards. Leaky portholes were sealed up due to unsafe leaks and even chunks of concrete fell off in a few places. Due to deterioration, all the portholes on the lower level of the circular oceanarium had to be sealed. With no direct ownership, no funding, and the financial burden of bond interest payments, employees were left to cope with equipment failures, safety hazards, no marketing, loss of credit, bounced paychecks, further government inspections and the custodianship of the marine mammals, fish and birds. During this era, many individuals and businesses contributed materials and services to help employees keep the place going. In the end, the foundation repaid the bondholders with pennies on the dollar, a large part of Marinelands dolphin population was sold off to Seaworld in Orlando, and new ownership took over the attractions operation.</p><br>
<h3>Rebirth</h3><br>
<p>Hurricanes Floyd and Irene in 1999 forced the park to close for two months. Damage was extensive with the famous boardwalk destroyed and the walkways to Whitney park collapsing due to erosion, and the filtration plant under threat of falling into the ocean. Other buildings suffered damage including the iconic Marineland sign. In 2003, all of the park buildings west of Highway A1A were demolished leaving only the original structures along the Atlantic Ocean, as well as the original administration building. In 2004, after being battered by three more hurricanes, the park closed completely for renovations as part of a development scheme by the Atlanta-based developer, Jim Jacoby; it reopened on March 4, 2006 as the Dolphin Conservation Center. A working relationship was established with the Georgia Aquarium to operate the center until it was sold to Georgia Aquarium in 2011. Today modern equipment and highly trained staff attend to the animals and visitors who still come to the park.</p><br>
<p>During the renovations the original 1938 Circular Oceanarium (400,000 usgal) and Rectangular Oceanarium (450,000 usgal), along with the 1952 stadium and tanks were demolished as they were well beyond repair. The old Marineland lab was also demolished. Large new tanks which contain nearly 485,000 usgal of water were constructed as part of a structure built where Whitney Park once stood. This would become the centerpiece of the new Marineland. This facility includes modern buildings, pumping station, and other equipment, as well as a small museum featuring artifacts of the old Marineland. The location where the original oceanariums once stood became a parking area. The old main entrance, walkway and gift shop were preserved, being the only original structures left on the east side of A1A. Areas along the old main entrance walkway were repurposed with holding tanks for sharks and rehabbed sea turtles standing in the area where the flamingo pond once existed. Fresh water for Marineland now arrives from an expansion of the City of Palm Coast utility system. A new water line was installed along A1A because of development in the area.</p><br>
<p>The era of the original dolphin shows at Marineland ended as the park was transformed and reopened as a hands-on educational and environmental facility called the Marineland Dolphin Adventure. Guests can now interact directly with the dolphins in the new facility as well see other marine life. Future plans for the area included a condominium development on former park lands, but as of 2022, that has not happened. Western portions of Marineland have been redeveloped with student lodging for the Whitney Lab and other research entities. The former Marineland of Florida administration building was also repurposed, and now serves as offices for the Whitney Laboratories. A new Marina has also been built alongside the Intracoastal Waterway. The rest of the old Marineland property including lands where the hotel and the campground once stood became the property of Flagler County and now make up the River to the Sea Preserve, one of the county&#39;s many parks.</p><br>
<p>With a gift from Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney of slightly more than 3 acre of land, together with his donation of about half of the total construction costs, on January 30, 1974 the University of Florida had opened the Whitney Marine Laboratory adjacent to Marineland. This laboratory&#39;s purpose was the experimental study of marine animals but it was separate from the lab that was once operated by Marineland. Marine Studios through their research facility contributed greatly to the understanding of porpoise and dolphin behavior thanks to Arthur McBride, Forrest Wood, David and Melba Caldwell and other marine biologists and scientists. The staff at Marineland had a "first responder team" for hundreds of stranded whale emergency calls along the southeastern Atlantic Coast during its existence. The old Marineland lab was demolished in the renovations of 2003. Whitney Hall which was used frequently for Marineland parties and events is now slated to be demolished due to years of storm damages. A new building will be constructed in its place.</p><br>
<p>Three bottlenose dolphins were born at the newly constructed Dolphin Conservation Center in July 2008, two males and one female. The calves were named in November 2008.</p><br>
<p>In January 2011, Marineland was sold again and was operated as a subsidiary of Georgia Aquarium. In 2019 the park was sold anew to, which currently operates the park. The facility, now named "Marineland Dolphin Adventure", offers several dolphin encounters and educational programs, and conducts research to help care for marine life in captivity and in the wild. The current facility and staff provide modern medical care to the marine mammals in a large modern facility.</p><br>
<p>The New Jersey Historical Society is a historical society and museum located in Newark, Essex County, New Jersey, United States. The Historical Society is housed in the former headquarters of the Essex Club. It has two floors of exhibition space, a gift shop, and a hall for lectures. The NJHS offers occasional Newark walking tours. The Society formerly published the academic journal, New Jersey History.</p><br>
<p>Exhibitions can be found on the second and third floor while the library reading room is housed on the fifth floor, formerly the Essex Club squash courts</p><br>
<p>The Society is open to the public. Members are free, while non-members pay an admission fee. Patrons visiting the library are encouraged to make an appointment. The current director is Steven Tettamanti.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The society was founded in 1845 at Trenton by intellectual and business leaders of New Jersey including Joseph C. Hornblower, Robert Gibbon Johnson, Peter D. Vroom and William Whitehead. In 1846, the society relocated to Newark and has been there ever since.</p><br>
<p>Its original headquarters in Newark were located on Market Street. In 1931 it left Downtown Newark for a large colonial-style building partially paid for by Louis Bamberger at 230 Broadway, east of Branch Brook Park.</p><br>
<p>In 1997 the Historical Society returned downtown, to 52 Park Place, on Military Park. The new home is a Georgian style building vacated by the Essex Club that was designed by Guilbert & Betelle. The building was built in 1926 and had been added to the National Register of Historic Places on February 22, 1991. In its first year in the downtown location visits increased almost fivefold.</p><br>
<p>Sloan Canyon National Conservation Area is a National Conservation Area  administered by the United States Bureau of Land Management . It includes the Sloan Petroglyph Site which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 19, 1978. It is located south of Henderson, Nevada, access is available from Las Vegas Boulevard,</p><br>
<h2>Petroglyphs</h2><br>
<p>Sloan Canyon contains a great many petroglyphs and has been called the Sistine Chapel of Native American rock art due to their size and significance. Archaeologists believe the more than 300 rock art panels with 1,700 individual design elements were created by native cultures from the Archaic to historic eras.</p><br>
<p>The BLM currently maintains a policy of not publicizing the exact location of the petroglyphs due to recent problems with vandalism. Access to the NCA is further hampered by the rapid development of private land and to ongoing conflicts over land use and zoning.</p><br>
<p>Sloan Canyon NCA is (as of November 2006) closed to camping, shooting and offroad vehicle access, due to dumping and vandalism. Hiking, biking and horseback riding are encouraged on existing roads and trails. The BLM asks that you respect the rock art, and be a responsible visitor.</p><br>
<p>The North McCullough Wilderness Area which covers the northern part of the McCullough Range is contained within the boundaries of the NCA.</p><br>
<h2>Trailheads</h2><br>
<p>Dutchman Pass (Mission Hills) on the east boundary</p><br>
<p>Quo Vadis on the east boundary</p><br>
<p>Hidden Valley on the west southern boundary</p><br>
<p>Petroglyph Canyon on the western boundary (South of Inspirada)</p><br>
<p>Shadow Canyon on the western mid boundary (Inside Solara)</p><br>
<p>Anthem Hills on the western north boundary (South Anthem)</p><br>
<p>Natural Bridge is a geological formation in Rockbridge County, Virginia, United States, comprising a 215 ft natural arch with a span of 90 ft. It is situated within a gorge carved from the surrounding mountainous limestone terrain by Cedar Creek, a small tributary of the James River. Consisting of horizontal limestone strata, Natural Bridge is the remains of the roof of a cave or tunnel through which the Cedar Creek once flowed.</p><br>
<p>Natural Bridge has been designated a Virginia Historic Landmark and a National Historic Landmark. Since 2016, the bridge and its surroundings have been managed by the Commonwealth of Virginia as Natural Bridge State Park.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Rocks in the area are limestones and dolomites from the Ordovician Period, which implies deposition about 470 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>The carbonates of the Natural Bridge occur within the Chepultepec Formation, making the buttress of the bridge, and the Beekmantown Formation, deposited conformably over the Chepultepec and comprising the span and the upper part of the bridge. Strata at Natural Bridge are close to horizontal, in contrast with dipping and folded beds as close as 300 ft away along Highway 11, which points to the fact that structurally the rocks making the Natural Bridge are the bottom part of a syncline.</p><br>
<p>The process of formation of the bridge is less certain, but the ideas proposed by different individuals have in common the importance of three elements: The southeast dipping of the strata, the capability of water to slowly dissolve carbonates, and the existence of numerous fractures. Edgar W. Spencer has provided a summary of the most respected interpretations and produced the presently most widely accepted hypothesis.</p><br>
<p>According to Spencer, the Natural Bridge was the remnant of an underground river tunnel that diverted water to the south. Initially, the underground river started capturing water from the Poague Run about 2 mi to the north, contributing to enlarge the incipient Cedar Creek drainage basin. Over time, through weathering and erosion, the underground river collapsed and disappeared almost completely, the Natural Bridge being the only surviving relic of the roof of the ancient underground river. The creek&#39;s larger flow contributed to form the present-day gorge, significantly increasing the distance from the bottom of the water flow to the roof of the underground channel. Today, the "Lost River", about 1/2 mi upstream from the Natural Bridge, is an example supporting the hypothesis of the underground river. Water from the side of the gorge flows into the Cedar Creek, similarly as the ancestral Cedar Creek underground river allegedly flowed into the Cascade Creek, presently entering the Cedar Creek approximately 500 ft below the Natural Bridge.</p><br>
<p>Historic Rockbridge indicates that “Natural Bridge is part of the Beekmantown Formation from the Ordovician period, estimated to be 500 million years old.”</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Natural Bridge was a sacred site of the Native American Monacan tribe, who believed it to be the site of a major victory over pursuing Powhatans centuries before the arrival of Europeans in Virginia.</p><br>
<p>In March 1742, a frontiersman named John Howard — along with his son and others — was commissioned by Governor William Gooch to explore the southwest of Virginia as far as the Mississippi River. The party followed Cedar Creek through the Natural Bridge, then floated in buffalo-skin boats down the New, Coal, Kanawha, and Ohio rivers to the Mississippi.</p><br>
<p>It is alleged that George Washington also came to the site in 1750 as a young surveyor. To support claims that Washington surveyed the area, tour guides claim the initials "G.W." on the wall of the bridge, 23 ft up, were carved by the future president. Legend also has it that George Washington threw a rock from the bottom of Cedar Creek over the bridge. In 1927, a large stone was found, also engraved "G.W." and bearing a surveyor&#39;s cross, which historians accepted as proof that he indeed surveyed the bridge.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Jefferson purchased 157 acre of land including the Natural Bridge from King George III of Great Britain for 20 shillings in 1774. He called it "the most Sublime of nature&#39;s works". Jefferson built a two-room log cabin, with one room reserved for guests, beginning its use as a retreat. While President, in 1802, he personally surveyed the area. Many famous guests stayed here, including John Marshall, James Monroe, Henry Clay, Sam Houston, and Martin Van Buren.</p><br>
<p>One of the earliest paintings of the Natural Bridge was done by Jacob Caleb Ward (1809–1891) in 1835. It is on view at the Nelson-Atkins Museum in Kansas City, Missouri.</p><br>
<p>Natural Bridge was one of the tourist attractions of the new world that Europeans visited during the 18th and 19th centuries. Vacationing guests from all over the world took day trips from Natural Bridge on horseback or horse-drawn carriages to explore the countryside. In 1833, a new owner erected the Forest Inn to accommodate the increasing number of people.</p><br>
<p>The bridge had considerable notoriety during the 19th century. Herman Melville alluded to the bridge in describing Moby-Dick: "But soon the fore part of him slowly rose from the water; for an instant his whole marbleized body formed a high arch, like Virginia&#39;s Natural Bridge..." William Cullen Bryant, another American literary figure, said that Natural Bridge and Niagara Falls were the two most remarkable features of North America. During the 1880s Natural Bridge was a resort owned by Colonel Henry Parsons, who also owned the nearby Rockbridge Inn.</p><br>
<p>In 1927 a nocturnal lighting display of the arch and gorge was designed by Samuel Hibben and Phinehas V. Stephens, illuminating engineers with the Westinghouse Company. The display was formally switched on by President Calvin Coolidge in a 1927 inaugural ceremony. The original display has since been replaced with a sound and light show depicting the biblical seven days of the Creation as described in Genesis.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, nearly 1,500 acre, including the bridge, were slated to be sold at auction. To prevent piecemeal development of the landmark, the Virginia Conservation Legacy Fund (VCLF) purchased the bridge, hotel, and surrounding land for $9.1 million, made possible by a loan from the Virginia Clean Water Revolving Loan Fund. When the VCLF soon found itself unable to make payments on that loan, the Commonwealth of Virginia offered to manage the property as a Virginia State Park.</p><br>
<h2>Natural Bridge State Park</h2><br>
<p>Visitors must purchase tickets to view the bridge from below, although the park&#39;s fees under state management are about half what had been charged under prior ownership. USA Route 11 (Lee Highway) runs on top of the bridge, but protective fences make it difficult to see anything besides the roadway.</p><br>
<p>The state park includes several long-standing attractions, including the trail under the bridge and along Cedar Creek and the 30 ft Lace Falls.</p><br>
<p>The new state park was designated an "Affiliated Area" by the National Park Service in 2016. The designation does not imply ownership or management by the federal government, though it does allow for their technical and financial assistance.</p><br>
<p>Hakone Gardens is an 18 acre traditional Japanese garden in Saratoga, California, United States. A recipient of the Save Americas Treasures Award by the National Trust for Historic Preservation, it is recognized as one of the oldest Japanese-style residential gardens in the Western Hemisphere. Notable features include a bamboo garden, a Zen garden, a strolling garden , tea houses, and the Cultural Exchange Center, which is an authentic reproduction of a 19th-century Kyoto tea merchants house and shop.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1915, two San Francisco arts patrons, Oliver and Isabel Stine, intending to build a summer retreat, purchased the 18 acre site on which Hakone now stands. Inspired by the Panama–Pacific International Exposition and her subsequent 1916 trip to Japan, Isabel Stine modeled the gardens upon (and named them after) Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park. She hired Japanese landscape artists and architects to design the gardens (credited to Naoharu Aihara) and the Upper "Moon Viewing" House (credited to Tsunematsu Shintani). Construction proceeded between 1917 and 1929. In 1923, the west coast premiere of Puccini&#39;s Madama Butterfly was held in the gardens; Isabel Stine was a co-founder and patron of the producing company, the San Francisco Opera.</p><br>
<p>In 1932, ownership passed to financier Major Charles Lee Tilden who hired landscape gardener James Sasaki and added the main gate to the gardens. When he died, Hakone was inherited by his sister, Mrs. Walter Gregory. After her death in 1959, Hakone was left untended, and the property was put up for sale by her son.</p><br>
<p>In 1961, Joseph and Clara Gresham, their son Eldon and his wife Deon, and four Chinese American couples (George and Marie Hall, Johnny Kan and Helen Kan, Dan and June Lee, Col. John C. Young and Mary Lee Young) purchased the estate. This partnership restored Hakone, keeping its traditional Japanese authenticity while using it as a private retreat. In 1966 the partners offered Hakone for sale to the City of Saratoga. By purchasing the property, Saratoga saved it from potential redevelopment.</p><br>
<p>The City of Saratoga hired landscape gardener Tanso Ishihara, who cooperated with architect Kiyoshi Yasui to develop a master plan to expand the gardens over the full property. The original main gardens, ponds, waterfalls, and walkways were restored, and a new series of trails on the southwest hillside were constructed. A new garden (the Bamboo Garden) was added in 1987 to commemorate the sister city relationship between Saratoga and Mukō in Kyoto Prefecture.</p><br>
<p>Today Hakone is administered by The Hakone Foundation, a non-profit organization, which was established in 2000 to restore and enhance the gardens independently of public funding. The gardens are open to the public and the various community facilities are often used for cultural events.</p><br>
<h3>Film History</h3><br>
<p>Hakone Gardens was a filming location for the movie Memoirs of a Geisha (2005).</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<h3>Gardens</h3><br>
<p>There are four principal gardens at the site:</p><br>
<p>The Hill and Pond Garden</p><br>
<p>The Zen Garden</p><br>
<p>The Tea Garden</p><br>
<p>The Bamboo Garden</p><br>
<p>Of these, the Bamboo Garden is the newest, completed in 1987; the other three date back to the original construction commissioned by the Steins, with the Hill and Pond Garden the oldest, completed in 1918.</p><br>
<p>The Hill and Pond Garden features a waterfall emptying into large koi pond with an island accessible via bridge. It is considered to incorporate elements of both Chisen-shuyu (pond) and Chisen-kaiyu (strolling) gardens.</p><br>
<p>The Zen Garden features gravel raked into patterns and is designed for viewing and contemplation.</p><br>
<p>The Tea Garden is patterned after a typical Roji (Tea House garden).</p><br>
<h3>Structures</h3><br>
<p>The historic on-site structures were constructed using traditional Japanese designs and carpentry, based on 16th and 17th century residences favored by the samurai warrior class. The oldest are the Upper House (1918), Lower House (1922), and Tea Waiting Pavilion (1927). The Upper House was patterned after a typical rustic residence (shoin-zukuri) and was where the tea ceremony would be held, after the tea was prepared in the Tea Waiting Pavilion. The Lower House was used as the Steins&#39; summer residence until approximately 1929. Significant alterations were made in the early 1980s to accommodate tea ceremony classes.</p><br>
<p>The Main Gate dates to Tilden&#39;s ownership, and was completed in 1941. Tilden also added the Wisteria Pavilion and Arbor, Moon Bridge, and Upper Pavilion in the Hill and Pond Garden at that time. The Cultural Exchange Center is one of the newer buildings, and was completed in 1991.</p><br>
<p>The Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts  is a museum and private art school in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was founded in 1805 and is the first and oldest art museum and art school in the United States.</p><br>
<p>The academys museum is internationally known for its collections of 19th- and 20th-century American paintings, sculptures, and works on paper. Its archives house important materials for the study of American art history, museums, and art training. It offers a Bachelor of Fine Arts, Master of Fine Arts, certificate programs, and continuing education. The academy will cease to offer degrees (except for the bachelors program in conjunction with the University of Pennsylvania) by 2025.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>The Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts was founded in 1805 by painter and scientist Charles Willson Peale, sculptor William Rush, and other artists and business leaders. Its first building on Chestnut and 10th Streets in Center City Philadelphia was designed by John Dorsey and opened in 1806. The academy opened as a museum in 1807 and held its first exhibition in 1811, where more than 500 paintings and statues were displayed. The first school classes held in the building were with the Society of Artists in 1810.</p><br>
<p>The academy had to be reconstructed after the fire of 1845. The new building by architect Richard Arthington Gilpin opened in 1847 and was demolished in 1870, following damage by a storm. The leaders of the academy then raised funds to construct a building more worthy of its treasures. They commissioned the current Furness-Hewitt building, which was constructed from 1871. It opened as part of the 1876 Philadelphia Exposition. The Chestnut Street site was leased to the vaudeville entrepreneur Robert Fox, who opened Fox&#39;s New American Theatre there in 1870.</p><br>
<p>In 1876, former academy student and artist Thomas Eakins returned to teach as a volunteer. Fairman Rogers, chairman of the Committee on Instruction from 1878 to 1883, appointed Eakins a faculty member in 1878, and promoted him to director in 1882. Eakins revamped the certificate curriculum to its current format. Students in the certificate program learned fundamentals of drawing, painting, sculpture, and printmaking, including relief, intaglio, and lithography, for two years. For the following two years, they conducted independent study, guided by critiques from faculty, students, and visiting artists.</p><br>
<p>The 1844 board of directors declaration that women artists "would have exclusive use of the statue gallery for professional purposes" and study time in the museum on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday mornings began an incremental step of inclusion of women in the academy. In 1860, female students were allowed to take anatomy and antique courses, drawing from antique casts, and they were afforded access to the academys library and gallery. Life classes, the study of the nude body, were available to women in the spring of 1868 with female models; male models were added for study six years later. This came after much debate on whether it was appropriate for women to view the nude male form.</p><br>
<p>In 1878, Catherine Drinker, at the age of 27, became the first woman to teach at the academy. In 1895, one of her pupils, her younger cousin Cecilia Beaux, became the first female faculty member at the academy to instruct painting and drawing.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>From 1890 to 1906, Edward Hornor Coates served as the tenth president of the academy. In 1915, he was awarded the academy&#39;s gold medal. In 1921, painter John McLure Hamilton, who began his art education at the academy under Thomas Eakins, described the contributions Coates made during his tenure:</p><br>
<p>The reign of Mr. Coates at the Academy marked the period of its greatest prosperity. Rich endowments were made to the schools, a gallery of national portraiture was formed, and some of the best examples of Gilbert Stuarts work acquired. The annual exhibitions attained a brilliancy and éclat hitherto unknown... Mr. Coates wisely established the schools upon a conservative basis, building almost unconsciously the dykes high against the oncoming flow of insane novelties in art patterns... In this last struggle against modernism the President was ably supported by Eakins, Anschutz, Grafly, Thouron, Vonnoh, and Chase... His unfailing courtesy, his disinterested thoughtfulness, his tactfulness, and his modesty endeared him to scholars and masters alike. No sacrifice of time or of means was too great, if he thought he could accomplish the end he always had in view—the honour and the glory of the Academy. It was under Mr. Coates enlightened direction that was fulfilled the expressed wish of Benjamin West, the first honorary Academician, that "Philadelphia may be as much celebrated for her galleries of paintings by the native genius of the country, as she is distinguished by the virtues of her people; and that she may be looked up to as the Athens of the Western World in all that can give polish to the human mind."</p><br>
<p>Harrison S. Morris, managing director from 1892 to 1905, collected contemporary American art for the institution. Among the many masterpieces acquired during his tenure were works by Cecilia Beaux, William Merritt Chase, Frank Duveneck, Thomas Eakins, Winslow Homer, Childe Hassam, and Edmund Tarbell. Work by The Eight, which included former academy students Robert Henri and John Sloan, provides a transition between 19th- and 20th-century art movements.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>In 2010, the academy acquired the Linda Lee Alter Collection of Art by Women, including nearly 500 works by female artists, from collector Linda Lee Alter. Artists in the collection include Louise Bourgeois, Judy Chicago, Louise Nevelson, Kiki Smith, Kara Walker, and Philadelphia artists Barbara Bullock and Elizabeth Osborne. In 2012, the academy featured the collection in the exhibition The Female Gaze: Women Artists Making Their World.</p><br>
<h2>Operations</h2><br>
<h3>Museum</h3><br>
<p>Since its founding, the academy has collected works by leading American artists, as well as works by distinguished alumni and faculty of its school. The academy maintains its collecting tradition with the inclusion of works by modern and contemporary American artists. Acquisitions and exhibition programs are balanced between historical and contemporary art, and the museum continues to show works by contemporary regional artists and features annual displays of work by academy students. The collection is installed in a chronological and thematic format, exploring the history of American art from the 1760s to the present.</p><br>
<h3>School</h3><br>
<p>The academy has a longstanding four-year certificate program. Beginning in 1929, qualified students have been able to apply for and receive a coordinated Bachelor of Fine Arts program from the University of Pennsylvania. The BFA degree program is also offered in-house, and a Master of Fine Arts program, post-baccalaureate certificate in graduate studies, and other education offerings are now offered.</p><br>
<p>In 2005, the academy received the National Medal of Arts in recognition of its role as a national leader in fine arts education.</p><br>
<p>In January 2007, in association with the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the academy purchased Thomas Eakins&#39;s work The Gross Clinic from the Jefferson Medical School. This work is displayed at both institutions on a rotating basis.</p><br>
<p>In January 2009, the academy signed a transfer agreement with Camden County College in New Jersey, known as the Camden Connection, which allows for the transfer of liberal arts and studio classes and partial merit scholarships for qualified Camden County College students. Other transfer agreements are now in place with community college art departments at the Community College of Philadelphia, Montgomery County Community College, Atlantic Cape Community College, and Northampton Community College.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, the academy received Middle States Commission on Higher Education accreditation.</p><br>
<p>In 2024, the academy announced plans to terminate their degree granting programs. After 2025, the academy will no longer grant BFA or MFA degrees to students. Continuing education, certificate programs, and the bachelor&#39;s degree in conjunction with the University of Pennsylvania will still be hosted by the institution.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<h3>The Furness-Hewitt building</h3><br>
<p>The current museum building began construction in 1871 and opened in 1876 in connection with the Philadelphia Centennial. Designed by the American architects Frank Furness and George Hewitt, it has been called "One of the most magnificent Victorian buildings in the country."</p><br>
<p>The inside of the building is equally varied, combining "gilt floral patterns incised on a field of Venetian red;... cerulean blue ceiling sprinkled with silver stars", and plum, ochre, sand and olive green gallery walls. The building&#39;s structure combines brick, stone and iron; because of fire-proofing concerns, some of the iron i-beams were left uncovered.</p><br>
<h4>1876 opening notes</h4><br>
<p>The book A Century After, picturesque glimpses of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania includes the following on the 1876 opening:</p><br>
<p>The newly Academy of Fine Arts will bear comparison with any institution of its kind in America. It has a front of one hundred feet on Broad Street and a depth of two hundred and fifty-eight feet on Cherry Street. Its situation, with a street on each of its three sides, and an open space along a considerable portion of the fourth, is very advantageous as regards lighting, and freedom from risk by fire.</p><br>
<p>It is built of brick, the principal entrance, which is two stories high, being augmented with encaustic tiles, terra-cotta statuary, and light stone dressings. The walls are laid in patterns of red and white brick. Over the main entrance on Broad Street there is a large Gothic window with stone tracery. The Cherry Street front is relieved by a colonnade supporting arched windows, back of which is the transept and pointed gable.</p><br>
<p>Beyond the entrance vestibule is the main staircase, which starts from a wide hall and leads to the galleries on the second floor. Along the Cherry Street side of the Academy are five galleries arranged for casts from the antique; and, further on, are rooms for drapery painting, and the life class. These have a clear north light which can never be obstructed.</p><br>
<p>On the south side, there is a large lecture room, with retiring rooms, and back of these are the modeling rooms and rooms devoted to the use of students and professors.</p><br>
<p>On the second floor is the main hall, which extends across the building, and is intended for the exhibition of large works of art. This story is divided into galleries, which are lighted from the top. Through the center runs a hall which is set apart for the exhibition of statuary, busts, small statues, bas-reliefs, etc. On each side of this hall are picture galleries, which are so arranged in size and form as to admit of classification of pictures, and which can be divided into suits where separate exhibitions may be held at the same time.</p><br>
<p>The art collections of the gallery are considered the most valuable in America. They comprise the masterpieces of Stuart, Sully, Allston, West, and others of our early artists, the Gilpin gallery, fine marbles, and facsimiles of famous statues, as well as a magnificent gallery from the antique.</p><br>
<p>The building is now considered one of the most notable buildings in Philadelphia and one of Furness&#39; greatest works. In 1971, the building was named to the National Register of Historic Places. Four years later, in 1975, it was designated a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>In 1976, the building&#39;s exterior and interior was refurbished to coincide with its centennial and with the United States bicentennial. The restoration work was conducted through Day and Zimmerman Associates, and headed by Human Myers.</p><br>
<p>In 2019, architectural firm DLR Group completed another renovation on both the Furness-Hewitt and Hamilton buildings to accommodate growth within the institutions fixed site while maintaining the buildings historic details.</p><br>
<h3>Samuel M.V. Hamilton Building</h3><br>
<p>In 2002, Dorrance H. Hamilton made a large donation to the academy for its expansion, and the academy purchased the former automobile factory at 128 N. Broad Street, next to the original building. Designed by Charles Oelschlager, the building was formerly a federal government building. The structure was renamed in memory of her husband, Samuel M.V. Hamilton. The academy completed its move there in September 2006.</p><br>
<p>The new building includes an exhibition space, the Fisher Brooks Gallery, named after James R. Fisher, an artist who attended the academy in the late 1880s, and Leonie Brooks. They are the grandfather and mother, respectively, of Marguerite Lenfest, a philanthropist and academy board member. The Hamilton building also houses Portfolio, the museum&#39;s gift shop.</p><br>
<h3>Awards presented to individuals by the academy</h3><br>
<p>Widener Gold Medal: The academy established the George D. Widener Gold Medal for sculpture in 1912. Widener was a businessman and director of the academy who died on the RMS Titanic. The award recognizes the "most meritorious work of Sculpture modeled by an American citizen and shown in the Annual Exhibition".</p><br>
<h4>Defunct awards</h4><br>
<p>Beck Gold Medal: The Carol H. Beck Gold Medal was awarded to the best portrait by an American artist exhibited at PAFA&#39;s annual exhibition. It was awarded from 1909 to 1968.</p><br>
<p>Mary Smith Prize: The Mary Smith Prize was awarded to "the Painter of the best painting (not excluding portraits) exhibiting at the Academy, painted by a resident woman Artist." It was awarded from 1879 to 1968.</p><br>
<p>Temple Gold Medal: The Joseph Temple Fund Gold Medal was awarded to the best oil painting by an American artist exhibited at PAFA&#39;s annual exhibition. It was awarded from 1883 to 1968.</p><br>
<h2>Deaccessioning</h2><br>
<p>In 2013, the academy sold East Wind Over Weehawken, a 1934 portrait that is among two Edward Hopper portraits in the academys collection, to start an endowment fund. About 25 percent of the fund will be used to fill gaps in the collection of historic art, with most of the rest to buy contemporary art of undetermined value with hopes for dramatic increases in the future. The painting was sold at auction for $40,485,000, resulting in a boost to the museums endowment by approximately $23.5 million, but raised new questions about the museum&#39;s mission and whether such deaccessionings are in the public interest.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Notable students and faculty of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts include:</p><br>
<p>Linda Lee Alter</p><br>
<p>Charles Andes</p><br>
<p>Thomas Pollock Anshutz</p><br>
<p>Thomas N. Armstrong III</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth Gowdy Baker</p><br>
<p>Will Barnet</p><br>
<p>Cornelia Barns</p><br>
<p>Bo Bartlett</p><br>
<p>Walter Emerson Baum</p><br>
<p>Anna Whelan Betts</p><br>
<p>Ethel Franklin Betts</p><br>
<p>Cecilia Beaux</p><br>
<p>Alexander Stirling Calder</p><br>
<p>Al Capp (attended briefly)</p><br>
<p>Arthur B. Carles</p><br>
<p>Mary Cassatt</p><br>
<p>Jonathan Lyndon Chase</p><br>
<p>Margaret Covey Chisholm</p><br>
<p>Edward Hornor Coates</p><br>
<p>Rachel Constantine</p><br>
<p>Colin Campbell Cooper</p><br>
<p>John Rogers Cox</p><br>
<p>Ralston Crawford</p><br>
<p>Jack Delano</p><br>
<p>Vincent Desiderio</p><br>
<p>Blanche Dillaye</p><br>
<p>Thomas Eakins</p><br>
<p>Thomas Harlan Ellett, architect</p><br>
<p>David Em</p><br>
<p>Wharton Esherick</p><br>
<p>Stephen Etnier</p><br>
<p>Virginia B. Evans</p><br>
<p>Frances Farrand Dodge</p><br>
<p>Katherine Levin Farrell</p><br>
<p>Louise Fishman</p><br>
<p>A. B. Frost</p><br>
<p>Frank Furness</p><br>
<p>Charles Lewis Fussell</p><br>
<p>Frank Gasparro</p><br>
<p>Daniel Garber</p><br>
<p>William Glackens</p><br>
<p>Charles Grafly</p><br>
<p>Marie Bruner Haines</p><br>
<p>William Weeks Hall</p><br>
<p>Walker Hancock</p><br>
<p>James Havard</p><br>
<p>A. G. Heaton</p><br>
<p>Isabelle Bowen Henderson</p><br>
<p>Barkley Hendricks</p><br>
<p>Robert Henri</p><br>
<p>Edward Lamson Henry</p><br>
<p>George Hewitt</p><br>
<p>Thomas Hovenden</p><br>
<p>Frances Tipton Hunter</p><br>
<p>Elsa Jemne</p><br>
<p>Maria Louise Kirk</p><br>
<p>Lucius Kutchin</p><br>
<p>Christine Lafuente</p><br>
<p>Sara Larkin</p><br>
<p>Dorothy P. Lathrop</p><br>
<p>Frank B. A. Linton</p><br>
<p>Adelia Armstrong Lutz</p><br>
<p>David Lynch</p><br>
<p>Paul Manship</p><br>
<p>John Marin</p><br>
<p>Don Martin</p><br>
<p>Donald Martiny</p><br>
<p>Elise Mercur, architect</p><br>
<p>James Metcalf</p><br>
<p>Alme Meyvis</p><br>
<p>Katherine Milhous</p><br>
<p>Abram Molarsky</p><br>
<p>Edward Percy Moran</p><br>
<p>Alphonse Mucha</p><br>
<p>Taras Mychalewych</p><br>
<p>John Neagle</p><br>
<p>Alice Neel</p><br>
<p>Brad Neely</p><br>
<p>Roy Cleveland Nuse</p><br>
<p>Violet Oakley</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth Osborne</p><br>
<p>Francis Petrus Paulus</p><br>
<p>Maxfield Parrish</p><br>
<p>Charles Willson Peale</p><br>
<p>Rembrandt Peale</p><br>
<p>Clara Elsene Peck</p><br>
<p>Louise Pershing</p><br>
<p>Jane Piper</p><br>
<p>Albin Polasek</p><br>
<p>Howard Pyle</p><br>
<p>Jacques Reich</p><br>
<p>Seymour Remenick</p><br>
<p>Edgar Preston Richardson</p><br>
<p>Fairman Rogers</p><br>
<p>Peter F. Rothermel</p><br>
<p>William Rush</p><br>
<p>Lawrence Saint</p><br>
<p>William Sartain</p><br>
<p>Mary B. Schuenemann</p><br>
<p>Leopold Seyffert</p><br>
<p>Michael H. Shamberg</p><br>
<p>David Sherman</p><br>
<p>Everett Shinn</p><br>
<p>John French Sloan</p><br>
<p>Louis B. Sloan</p><br>
<p>Owen Staples</p><br>
<p>LeConte Stewart</p><br>
<p>Frank Wilbert Stokes</p><br>
<p>Henry O. Tanner</p><br>
<p>Ellen Powell Tiberino</p><br>
<p>William B. T. Trego</p><br>
<p>Orlando Gray Wales</p><br>
<p>Philip Fishbourne Wharton</p><br>
<p>Benjamin West</p><br>
<p>Anita Willets-Burnham</p><br>
<p>Clarence C. Zantzinger</p><br>
<p>The Yereance–Berry House is a stone house built in the early 19th century in what is now Rutherford, in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on January 10, 1983, and is currently home to the Meadowlands Museum.</p><br>
<p>The house, 91 Crane Avenue at the corner of Meadow Road at the edge of the New Jersey Meadowlands, was inventoried by the Historic American Buildings Survey of the Library of Congress in 1938. At that time, the house was believed to have been built in 1804 and was known variously as the John W. Berry House or the Juria Jurianson House. The Yereance name came from the Yereance family, which at one time owned much of the property in the vicinity of the house. (There is a now-decommissioned Yereance Avenue two blocks north of the house.) However, Rutherford historian Frederick Bunker, in a 1979 report to the Meadowlands Museum, indicated that there was no evidence that a Yereance had ever owned the house.</p><br>
<p>The Historic American Buildings Survey report (#6-468) said that the house was built by John W. Berry, a direct descendant of Major John Berry, who obtained land grants from Governor of New Jersey Philip Carteret in 1668. Berry had previously lived in Barbados and named his grants New Barbadoes, a name that remained in official use until 1826. Berrys Creek is also named after Major Berry.</p><br>
<p>Bunker undertook a deed search of the property at the museums request. While Bunker was unable to determine an actual construction date, he concluded that the house was likely built in 1818 by Brant Van Blarcom and his wife, the former Getty Van Riper, a daughter of the previous landowner Jacob Van Riper, who died on or about July 8, 1807. The Van Riper homestead was near the Passaic River, across a ridge from Meadow Road. Getty Van Blarcom received the property in 1817 as the result of an orphans court proceeding that divided Jacob&#39;s property.</p><br>
<p>William Berry, who was a direct descendant of John Berry, purchased the property in 1867 for his son Stephen and his wife Margaret. Stephen died in 1872 and Margaret died in 1882; the house was sold at auction in 1891 and was owned by Charles Smithson at the time of the Historic American Buildings Survey. By that time, a new kitchen had been built on the west side of the house, replacing a kitchen that was removed because it was in the right of way of Crane Avenue, which was officially extended east to Meadow Road in the 1930s.</p><br>
<p>The house was purchased by the Rutherford Museum (now the Meadowlands Museum) in 1974, and the museum has maintained the house in addition to commissioning research on its provenance. In 1983, the house was re-surveyed for the Bergen County Stone House Survey (#0256-1), through which it achieved its placement on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The structure is composed of a brownstone foundation, with brownstone extending up to the water table and brick above it. The interior walls are brick, covered with plaster, and there are interior chimneys made of brick. The house has a gambrel roof.</p><br>
<p>Yereance-Berry house 1938.jpgThe Yereance–Berry House in 1938</p><br>
<p>Pipestone National Monument is located in southwestern Minnesota, just north of the city of Pipestone, Minnesota. It is located along the highways of USA Route 75, Minnesota State Highway 23 and Minnesota State Highway 30. The quarries are culturally significant to 23 tribal nations of North America. Those known to actually occupied the site chronologically are the Yankton Dakota, Iowa, and Omaha peoples. The Quarries were considered a neutral territory in the historic past where all tribal nations could quarry stone for ceremonial pipes. The catlinite, or "pipestone", is traditionally used to make ceremonial pipes. They are vitally important to Plains Indian traditional practices. Archeologists believe the site has been in use for over 3000 years with Minnesota pipestone having been found in ancient North American burial mounds across a large geographic area.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>From the 15th to 18th centuries the Iowa people lived by the quarry. By the late 1700s, the Sioux were the dominant tribe in the area. On October 11, 1849 the 5th Resolution passed by the Minnesota Territorial Legislature was to send a block of pipestone to the Washington Memorial in Washington, D.C. It was collected by Henry H. Sibley. The red stone is referred as ínyanša in the Dakota/Lakota language. In 1851 the Sisseton and Wahpeton bands of the Dakota signed the Traverse des Sioux treaty ceding southwest Minnesota to the USA government including the quarry. However, some of that ceded land was claimed by the Yankton people and they were not present nor signers of the treaty. To protect the site, the Yankton Dakota secured unrestricted access via article 8 of the Yankton Treaty signed on April 19, 1858. That created a one-mile square reservation, of over 600 acres, which was encroached upon by settlers multiple times. As the USA government started the process of taking possession of the Yankton Reservation in 1899, the quarry again reached the news. The Yankton tribe contested this seizure as illegal taking their claim to the U.S Supreme Court. The court ruled in their favor in 1926 and ordered that they be compensated. Afterwards, the land came under full control of the USA Government. The Pipestone Indian Training School closed in 1953 with the acreage remaining from the school transferred to the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources to create the Pipestone Wildlife Management Area. A boundary change occurred on June 18, 1956 with the original reservation reduced to just 108 acres.</p><br>
<p>The National Monument was established by an act of Congress on August 25, 1937, with the establishing legislation reaffirming the quarrying rights of the Native Americans. Any enrolled member of a federally recognized American Indian tribe may apply for a free quarry permit to dig for the pipestone. The National Park Service regularly consults with representatives from 23 affiliated tribal nations to discuss land management practices, historic preservation, exhibit design, and other facets of the parks management. The historic area is listed on the National Register of Historic Places under the heading "Cannomoke—Pipestone National Monument". Cannomok&#39;e means "pipestone quarry" in the Dakota language. The pipestone quarries within the monument are also designated as a Minnesota State Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>Pipemaking</h2><br>
<p>The Upper Midwest Indian Cultural Center is located inside the national monument&#39;s visitor center, and during the summer months sponsors demonstrations of pipemaking by Native craftworkers using the stone from the quarries. Local Native Americans carve the stones using techniques passed down from their ancestors. Many of the demonstrators are third or fourth generation pipe makers.</p><br>
<p>The Smithsonian Institution&#39;s National Museum of the American Indian has an extensive collection of 705 catlinite objects that it attributes to the Pipestone quarry, 585 of which are pipes.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<p>Visitors can walk along a three-quarter mile (1.2 km) self-guided trail to view the pipestone quarries and a waterfall. A trail guide is available at the visitor center. About 260 acre of the national monument has been restored to native tallgrass prairie. Monument staff burn prairie parcels on a rotating basis to control weeds and stimulate growth of native grasses. This habitat hosts many native wildlife species, including bird species such as bobolink and eastern kingbird. A larger area of restored tallgrass prairie and a small bison herd are maintained by the Minnesota DNR at Blue Mounds State Park, 20 mi to the south. The visitor center features exhibits about the natural and cultural history of the site, including a display of the petroglyphs found around the quarry. There is also an orientation video about the history of the pipestone quarries.</p><br>
<p>Crossroads of the World is an open-air mall on Sunset Boulevard and Las Palmas in Los Angeles. The mall features a central building designed to resemble an ocean liner surrounded by a small village of cottage-style bungalows. It was designed by Robert V. Derrah, built in 1936, and has been called America&#39;s first outdoor shopping mall.</p><br>
<p>Once a busy shopping center, the Crossroads later became private offices, primarily for the entertainment industry with a variety of music publishers and producers, television and film script writers, film and recording companies, novelists, costume designers, publicists, and casting agencies. The owner is planning a new development surrounding the site.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1931, after Charles H. Crawfords death, his wife Ella decided to build a multi-national outdoor market that would feel like "a permanent worlds fair with a cosmopolitan atmosphere" on the land where her husband was shot. She hired the Streamline Moderne architect Robert V. Derrah (who was finishing his work on the Coca-Cola Building) to design the complex.</p><br>
<p>Derrah designed a ship-shaped structure in the center of the complex. The surrounding buildings represented different countries of the world. The complex originally held 57 shops and cafes, and 36 offices on the upper floors. The Crossroads of the World was inaugurated on October 29, 1936. The new shopping center was not a full-blown success, but it became an excellent model for outdoors malls across the world.</p><br>
<p>In the 1950s, the Crossroads of the World was converted into an office complex. The Screen Actors Guild, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, Jackson Browne and Alfred Hitchcock used to rent offices there. The property was purchased in 1977 by the real estate investor Mort La Kretz and restored. On June 1, 1985, Michael Perricone founded Interlock Studios, an audio post production facility, which was located in Bungalow 1522 of the complex, until 1998, when it relocated to 6520 Sunset Boulevard, and was sold to Rick Larson a few years later, who renamed it Larson Studios.</p><br>
<p>In January 2019, the Los Angeles City Council approved the project to revamp the Crossroads of the World in a move to revitalize the district. Three high-rise buildings are planned to bring 950 apartments and condos, a 308-room hotel, and 190,000 ft&sup2; of commercial space. Preservationists called the redevelopment project a "Manhattanization of Hollywood". Eighty-two Hollywood Regency garden apartments are to be demolished in the project. These rent stabilized apartments are occupied by a decades-old, tight-knit community of largely low-income, predominantly Latino residents. Over 100 apartments in the project will be set aside for very low-income families.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Films:</p><br>
<p>The Muppets</p><br>
<p>L.A. Confidential</p><br>
<p>Indecent Proposal</p><br>
<p>The Adventures of Ford Fairlane</p><br>
<p>Café Society</p><br>
<p>Nancy Drew</p><br>
<p>Argo</p><br>
<p>Skincare</p><br>
<p>TV shows</p><br>
<p>Dragnet</p><br>
<p>Remington Steele</p><br>
<p>Tenspeed and Brown Shoe</p><br>
<p>Bosch</p><br>
<p>Commercials:</p><br>
<p>McDonald&#39;s</p><br>
<p>Ford</p><br>
<p>Mattel</p><br>
<p>Music Video:</p><br>
<p>Big Audio Dynamite: The Globe</p><br>
<p>The xx: I See You, "I Dare You"</p><br>
<p>Video Game:</p><br>
<p>Midnight Club: Los Angeles</p><br>
<p>L.A. Noire</p><br>
<p>The Crew</p><br>
<h3>Reproductions</h3><br>
<p>A reproduction of Crossroads iconic tower and spinning globe can be seen just inside the entrance to Disneys Hollywood Studios at Walt Disney World in Florida.</p><br>
<p>The Clinton Valley Center , originally called the Eastern Michigan Asylum for the Insane, was a psychiatric hospital located at 140 Elizabeth Lake Road in Pontiac, Michigan. The facility was designated a Michigan State Historic Site in 1974</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1873, to alleviate the overcrowding at the Kalamazoo psychiatric hospital, the Michigan state legislature appropriated $400,000 for the construction of a second hospital in eastern Michigan. Cities in the area were requested to bid for the project, and Pontiac won out over Detroit and other cities. The architect for the original main hospital was Elijah E. Myers, who also served as the architect for the current Michigan State Capitol in Lansing. The asylum opened its doors five years later, on August 1, 1878, and began treating 222 patients. The original superintendent, Henry Mills Hurd, introduced multiple innovations in psychiatric care, including discouraging restraints, occupational therapy, and recreational activities.</p><br>
<p>Both the campus size and number of patients slowly grew, as the hospital was repeatedly enlarged between 1882 and 1895 (also designed by Myers), with more additions in 1906, 1914, and 1938. In 1911, the hospital changed its name to Pontiac State Hospital. During the 1950s, the hospital experienced its peak of approximately 3,100 residing patients. The facility was renamed the Clinton Valley Center in 1973, and by the later 1970s the number of patients had declined to around 800.</p><br>
<p>Due to a decreasing number of patients, the facility was closed in 1997 by the State of Michigan with only 200 patients. The facility was demolished in 2000. A subdivision now occupies the site.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The campus of the Clinton Valley Center contained 44 structures, many of which were extensions of the original 1878 hospital.</p><br>
<p>The 1878 structure was a -story red-brick structure with a center building for offices and staff, and two wings for male and female patients. The building had a steeply pitched slate roof with multiple towers, and wood and metal cornices. The building resembled a typical Kirkbride model. The 1882 additions were designed by Charles Anderson to match the original construction. The 1906 and 1914 additions were brick hipped-roof structures, and the 1938 construction added a Tudor designed building onto the front of the structure.</p><br>
<p>Apart from the main hospital, other structures on the campus included the Vinton Building (1893), the Sawyer Building (1917), the Italian Renaissance chapel (1907) designed by the Detroit firm of Smith, Hinchman and Grylls.</p><br>
<p>The Tilden Park Merry-Go-Round is a menagerie carousel located in Tilden Regional Park near Berkeley and Oakland, in unincorporated Contra Costa County. It was built by the Herschell-Spillman Company of Tonawanda, New York in 1911, and it is one of the few antique carousels left in the United States. Before arriving at Tilden in 1948, the carousel had seen service at amusement parks in San Bernardino, Ocean Beach, and Los Angeles. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The Merry-Go-Round carousel is owned by the East Bay Regional Park District.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Tilden Park Merry-Go-Round originally operated from 1912 to 1916 at a trolley park at Urbita Springs, a lake that no longer exists in San Bernardino. The ride operated for a short time in San Diego County before being placed in storage. From 1935 to 1937 it operated at Griffith Park in Los Angeles before being replaced with the current Griffith Park Merry-Go-Round. In 1947, East Bay Regional Park District General Manager Richard Walpole visited Griffith Park and was impressed with their revenue producing concessions, including the Merry-Go-Round. The Merry-Go-Round operators in Griffith Park, the Davis family, were convinced by Walpole to move the ride that had been in storage and open it in Tilden Park. Ross Davis and his son John opened the Merry-Go-Round on May 29, 1948, at its current location.</p><br>
<p>In 1950, the Merry-Go-Round was expanded from a three-row machine to its current configuration as a four-row machine. The inside row of horses are all cast aluminum figures in contrast to the hand-carved poplar figures on the rest of the Merry-Go-Round. At the time of the reconfiguration, the original rounding boards were replaced with the white rounding boards seen today. The vignette paintings on the rounding boards were also painted in 1950.</p><br>
<p>While major mechanical overhauls have taken place over the years, including in 2008, much of the original machine remains intact. The machine is still operated using a trolley car throttle and a manual handbrake system. The original 7-1/2 horsepower Westinghouse electric motor still drives the Merry-Go-Round.</p><br>
<h2>Current Operations</h2><br>
<p>The Merry-Go-Round is generally open weekends year-round and weekdays from Memorial Day to Labor Day along with Spring Break. Hours are normally 11am-5pm except summer weekends when the ride closes at 6pm. Additionally, the Merry-Go-Round is open for a night time Christmas event from Thanksgiving to Christmas.</p><br>
<p>A food concession stand operates adjacent to the Merry-Go-Round selling drinks, lunch items, ice cream, cotton candy, and popcorn among other items.</p><br>
<p>The Merry-Go-Round is accessible on weekends by AC Transit bus line 67, Lake Anza/Merry-Go-Round stop.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration</h2><br>
<p>Upon acquiring the Merry-Go-Round in the 1970s, the East Bay Regional Park District hired a team of artists to restore the animals, spinning tub, and chariots. The ride was painted in the color palette that exists today, taking cues from the surrounding parklands.</p><br>
<p>In 2008, the Merry-Go-Round was closed for an extensive mechanical overhaul that included the remodeling of the building to add weather proof doors and windows. The aging wooden platform deck was replaced with a custom milled, vertical grain platform deck that is treated with a clear protective coat. A full overhaul of the North Tonawanda Band Organ at the center of the Merry-Go-Round was performed, however the band organ was not yet operating as of March 2016. The full project cost $700,000.</p><br>
<p>In November 2015, all Merry-Go-Round animals, spinning tub, and chariots were repainted in the 1970s color palette, the project included artists from the 1970s restoration. The 2015 project was a collaboration of Hawk&#39;s Eye Studio, Sycamore Concessions, and the East Bay Regional Park District.</p><br>
<h2>Filmography</h2><br>
<p>Before being relocated to Tilden Park, the carousel was in So Ends Our Night (1941).</p><br>
<p>The Merry-Go-Round was used as a film location for Remember Me (2016) featuring Rita Moreno and Steve Goldbloom.</p><br>
<p>Grant Park refers to the oldest city park in Atlanta, Georgia, United States, as well as the Victorian neighborhood surrounding it.</p><br>
<h2>Park</h2><br>
<p>Grant Park is a 131-acre green space and recreational area and is the fourth-largest park in the city, behind Chastain Park, Freedom Park and Piedmont Park. Zoo Atlanta, established in 1889 and originally known as the Grant Park Zoo, is located in the park and attracts more than 1 million visitors annually.</p><br>
<h3>History</h3><br>
<p>Grant Park was established in 1883 when Lemuel P. Grant, a successful engineer and businessman, gave the city of Atlanta 100 acre in the newly developed "suburb" where he lived. In 1890, the city acquired another 44 acre for the park and appointed its first park commissioner, Sidney Root. In 1903, the Olmsted Brothers (sons of Frederick Law Olmsted) were hired to create a plan for the park. The original park included a lake, named Lake Abana, to handle storm-water runoff.</p><br>
<p>A failed circus gave birth to the eventual Zoo Atlanta when local lumber merchant George Gress purchased animals from the circus and donated them to the city in 1889. The city decided Grant Park was the best location for the zoo and carved space out for the attraction. Later zoo expansions and parking requirements caused the removal of a portion of the lake. In 1892, the circular painting of the Battle of Atlanta was exhibited in the park. The cyclorama would eventually gain its own dedicated building in the park in 1921. Near the zoo is the Erskine Memorial Fountain, Atlanta&#39;s first public fountain, which was built in 1896 and moved to Grant Park in 1912. In 1948, another park landmark, the Thomas W. Talbot Monument, was dedicated by members of the International Association of Machinists, honoring their founder, Thomas W. Talbot.</p><br>
<p>In 1996, after years of neglect and abuse, the City of Atlanta Parks Bureau commissioned a new master plan for the park. The consultants working on the plan met with a citizen advisory group that would eventually become the Grant Park Conservancy. The Conservancy works to raise funds to enhance and protect the park for the enjoyment of all its visitors.</p><br>
<h2>Neighborhood</h2><br>
<p>Grant Park, the intown neighborhood surrounding the park, is one of Atlanta&#39;s oldest and most important historic districts, listed on the NRHP. It is bordered by the Cabbagetown neighborhood on the north, Ormewood Park on the east, Boulevard Heights on the southeast, Chosewood Park on the south, and Summerhill and Peoplestown on the west.</p><br>
<p>It includes the park, 48 acres or 35 hectares of Oakland Cemetery (established 1850), where Margaret Mitchell, Bobby Jones, 25 former mayors of Atlanta, six former governors of Georgia, and many Civil War dead are buried. It also includes the Atlanta Stockade; Fort Walker; and the 1858 mansion of Lemuel P. Grant, for whom the park and neighborhood were named. The mansion is the oldest house still standing on its original location in Atlanta. The Grant Park Neighborhood Association represents local residents.</p><br>
<p>Together with Inman Park, Grant Park contains the largest remaining area of Victorian architecture in Atlanta. Most buildings were built between the neighborhood&#39;s founding in 1882 and the first decades of the 20th century. Large two-story mansions face the park, more modest two-story, modified Queen Anne houses were built on surrounding streets, and one-story Victorian era cottages and Craftsman bungalows were built to the east of the park.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood is home to St. Paul United Methodist Church, which for a time in the early 1900s had the largest Methodist congregation in the Southeast. St. Paul is well known for its beautiful stained glass windows and an organ that was acquired in 1887. Each December, St. Paul, the Grant Park Cooperative Preschool (which is located on the first floor of St. Paul), and the Grant Park Parent Network host the Grant Park Candlelight Tour of Homes and Artist Market. There is also a Tour of Homes in the autumn sponsored by the Grant Park Neighborhood Association.</p><br>
<p>The Kirtland Temple is the first temple built by adherents of the Latter Day Saint movement, located in Kirtland, Ohio, and dedicated in March 1836. Joseph Smith, the movement&#39;s founder, directed the construction following a series of reported revelations, and the temple showcases a blend of Federal, Greek Revival, and Gothic Revival architectural styles. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969 and named a National Historic Landmark in 1977. Prior to March 5, 2024, the temple was owned and operated by Community of Christ ) for over a century before ownership transferred to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints .</p><br>
<p>Construction of the Kirtland Temple was a community effort involving significant contributions from church members, including the establishment of a sawmill and an ashery to supply building materials. The temple features unique architectural elements such as adjustable pews and dual pulpits, reflecting its multifunctional use for worship and education. The third floor was used for academic and religious instruction, emphasizing the importance of Hebrew studies to the faith&#39;s theological development.</p><br>
<p>The dedication on March 27, 1836, was attended by approximately one thousand people and included traditional rites such as the Hosanna Shout. Reports of visions and spiritual experiences by church leaders, including the restoration of certain priesthood keys through ancient prophets Moses, Elias (understood to be the Biblical prophet Malachi), and Elijah, were documented and later canonized in the Doctrine and Covenants. These keys represented various aspects of religious authority, including the gathering of Israel, the gospel of Abraham, and sealing powers. Not long after the dedication, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery reported seeing Jesus Christ "standing upon the breastwork of the pulpit."</p><br>
<p>Throughout its history, the Kirtland Temple has undergone various ownership changes and legal disputes, ultimately maintaining its status as a place of worship and historical significance within the Latter Day Saint movement. Today, it continues to serve as a historic site, open year-round for guided tours, meetings, and events, attracting visitors from around the world, and around 100,000 visitors annually. The temple&#39;s rich history, architectural distinctiveness, and ongoing religious and community use make it a unique landmark in American religious history.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>In December 1830, Joseph Smith, the founder of the Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints), said he received a revelation directing members of the faith to "assemble together in Ohio." By 1831, members of the church began to gather to the Kirtland area. When the building was first being constructed, it was just known as "the House of the Lord."</p><br>
<p>According to the diary of Truman O. Angell, the First Presidency (Smith, Rigdon, and Williams) reported a detailed shared vision of the inside and outside of the temple, to help show church volunteers the envisioned structure. Scott Barrick, director of Historic Kirtland, says that the visions were "like our (present day) virtual reality."</p><br>
<p>Directions were given to build a "lower court and a higher court," with a promise given that the Lord&#39;s "glory shall be there, and presence shall be there." The initial designs called for an interior that was 55 feet (17 m) wide by 65 feet (20 m) long. The building has two primary gathering spaces: an upper and a lower court (or hall). The lower hall was most often used for worship, including the sacrament (similar to communion), preaching, and prayer. It features two sets of pulpits, one on each end, and adjustable pews that allow the audience to face either direction. The upper hall was used for educational purposes, specifically for the School of the Apostles.</p><br>
<p>The buildings third floor served multiple functions. During the day, it hosted general academic classes, while in the evenings, it was used for church quorum meetings. Church members there studied Hebrew, which lasted only a little over two months, but it came to have a significant impact on the evolution of the faiths theology. Unlike earlier versions, Smith&#39;s school required a dedicated temple and ceased formal operations by 1836 as focus shifted to other community preparations. Additionally, the third floor contained various church offices, including that of Joseph Smith.</p><br>
<p>The interior incorporated unique features, while the exterior was influenced by the New England Protestant style. For example, the arrangement of two series of four-tiered pulpits on each end of the assembly rooms for seating the presidencies of the Melchizedek and Aaronic priesthoods was different from other buildings. The pulpits were designed with golden letters to differentiate offices of presiding officials from the church, from the Melchizedek Priesthood Offices, to the Aaronic Priesthood offices. (An example of this is using the letters M.P.C. This stood for Melchizedek Presiding Council- also known as the First Presidency). Church members donated labor and building materials, including glass and pottery which was ground up into the stucco. Crushed glassware was mixed with stucco to make the walls appear glistening.</p><br>
<p>Building the Kirtland Temple was a community effort. At the time of building the Kirtland temple, members of the church were in poverty and funds were scarce. Berea sandstone was chiseled from the Stannard Quarry at the base of Gildersleeve Mountain, and lumber was gathered from the surrounding area, particularly from the gravel pits on the other side of Gildersleeve Mountain along Hobart Road. In order to speed up the building process, in the fall of 1833 church members built a sawmill on Stoney Brook in Kirtland. An ashery was built by Newel K. Whitney during 1823 and 1824. The sawmill was built adjacent to the ashery, and both were used to supply materials to build the temple. At the sawmill, laborers crafted the interior support timbers and intricate woodwork found throughout the temple. The church bought 16 acres of old-growth forest to provide lumber to build the temple. Logs of walnut, cedar, cherry, and white oak were floated on the Chagrin River a few hundred yards to the sawmill where they were cut and used to build the temple. The temple was planned to be at the center of a community; church leaders designed a plat for the Kirtland temple similar to the one planned for Zion in Jackson County, Missouri. Nearly all able bodied men who were not away on missions for the church worked on the temple.</p><br>
<p>Under the supervision of Emma Smith, Josephs wife, the women of Kirtland contributed to the temples construction by sewing clothing for the workers and crafting materials for the temple itself. They produced carpets and curtains from white canvas, which were utilized to partition the spacious first and second floors of the temple into more private, smaller sections. Additionally, these curtains were strategically placed above the pulpits to offer privacy as required. During the day, the men would construct the temple, and by night would guard it from mobs and vandals., part of the collection Joseph Smith used to translate the Book of Abraham</p><br>
<p>Many church members were important to the construction of the Kirtland Temple. Of particular note is Artemus Millet, who has been credited for providing the method of the exterior wall construction, head stonemason, creating the mix of the exterior stucco, and as the superintendent of construction for a portion of the work. There is some disagreement as to the question if Millet was baptized before or after his building skills were needed and recommended by Brigham and Joseph Young. Either way, he was baptized by Brigham and confirmed by Joseph while in Canada, and Millet came afterwards to help provide methods, labor, and financial support for the building of the Kirtland Temple.M. Russell Ballard,</p><br>
<p>, November 6, 1994, byu.edu, accessed November 8, 2020</p><br>
<p>This was the first structure of its kind built by early Latter Day Saints. The Kirtland Temple is different in purpose from the Nauvoo Temple, built in the 1840s, and from other temples that followed in the Latter Day Saint movement. The temple was used as both a meetinghouse and a formally dedicated temple. At the time of its construction, none of the ordinances now associated with Latter-day Saint temple worship, such as baptism by proxy, endowments, and sealings, had been instituted. The practice of baptisms for the dead was not in use by the church until 1840. According to Tad Walch, from Deseret News, the endowment was given "in full" at the Nauvoo Red Brick Store, in 1842.</p><br>
<p>The Kirtland Temple was not originally white on the exterior as it is today. The original exterior was a bluish-gray according to Truman Coe, a local minister in the 1830s. The roof is believed to have been red, and the front doors olive green. Presently, only the doors are the original color.</p><br>
<p>Temples of nearly identical design were planned at about the same time period in Missouri at Temple Lot (in Independence), Far West, and Adam-ondi-Ahman. However, none were built because of the 1838 Mormon War which evicted the members from the state. The building cost $40,000 to construct. The interior has over 2,500 windowpanes.</p><br>
<h2>Dedication</h2><br>
<p>The temple was dedicated in a seven-hour service on March 27, 1836. The temple was filled to double its capacity, and many people who wanted to participate could not fit into the packed building. To address their disappointment, Joseph Smith directed them to a nearby schoolhouse used as an overflow building. The service was repeated for them the following Thursday.</p><br>
<p>A reported "one thousand persons" attended the gathering, which introduced such traditional dedication rites as the Hosanna Shout and singing of the hymn written by W. W. Phelps entitled "The Spirit of God Like a Fire Is Burning." Following a two-and-a-half-hour sermon given by Rigdon, Smith offered a dedicatory prayer that had been prepared by a committee of church leaders, as reprinted in</p><br>
<p>BYU Studies 12:4 (1972). "This day our school did not keep, we prepared for the dedication of the Lords house. I met in the presidents room, pres. J. Smith, jr. S. Rigdon, my brother W. A. Cowdery & Elder W. Parrish, and assisted in writing a prayer for the dedication of the house." which he indicated was given to him by revelation. Two other church leaders, Brigham Young and David W. Patten, were reported to have been inspired to speak in tongues following the prayer. Truman O. Angell recorded in his journal the following account:</p><br>
<p>When about midway during the prayer, there was a glorious sensation passed through the house; and we, having our heads bowed in prayer, felt a sensation very elevating to the soul. At the close of the prayer, F. G. Williams being in the upper east stand- -Joseph being in the speaking stand next below--rose and testified that midway during the prayer an holy angel came and seated himself in the stand. When the afternoon meeting assembled, Joseph, feeling very much elated, arose the first thing and said the personage who had appeared in the morning was the Angel Peter come to accept the dedication.On Easter Sunday, April 3, 1836, coinciding with the Jewish Passover, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery reported experiencing a significant event at the Kirtland Temple. It is recounted that the Lord manifested Himself to them, expressing acceptance of the temple. This event involved the restoration of certain priesthood keys through ancient prophets, namely Moses, Elias (understood to be the Biblical prophet Malachi), and Elijah. These keys were said to represent various aspects of religious authority, including the gathering of Israel, the gospel of Abraham, and sealing powers.</p><br>
<p>One of the main purposes of building the temple was to follow one of the Lord’s commandments and to be endowed with power. In order to receive their endowment, the men needed to finish building the temple and they needed to spiritually, mentally, and physically prepare. Part of the preparations involved ceremonial washings and anointings, symbolizing the purification of their hearts to enable communion with heaven. A few months prior to the temple dedication, Phelps expressed, "We are preparing to make ourselves clean, by first cleansing our hearts, forsaking our sins, forgiving everybody; … putting on clean decent clothes, by anointing our heads and by keeping all the commandments."</p><br>
<p>It&#39;s noted that while certain ordinances were performed in the Kirtland Temple, they were considered only a partial endowment, and the Kirtland temple is not the site of the first full temple endowment. The full endowment, according to accounts, was anticipated to occur later when the community settled in Nauvoo.</p><br>
<h2>Visions and miracles</h2><br>
<p>On January 21, 1836, before the temple was completed, Smith wrote in his journal the first of several visions received at the temple. As he and his associates performed a feet washing and anointing ritual, he saw "the celestial kingdom of God, and the glory thereof... the blazing throne of God, whereon was seated the Father and the Son." In addition, Smith said the streets looked like they were paved with gold, and then taught that any who died without learning about the (restored) gospel who would have embraced it would go to the Celestial Kingdom (The highest level of Heaven in Latter Day Saint theology). Smith also reported seeing Adam, Abraham, and three family members, only one of which had previously died; this experience of Smith was canonized by the LDS Church as revelation and published as Section 137 of the Doctrine and Covenants for the first time in 1981.</p><br>
<p>Days after the dedication, several more visions were recorded in his personal journal. On April 3, Smith had his scribe, Warren Cowdery, write down in his personal journal an account of a spiritual experience Smith and Oliver Cowdery had while praying in the pulpits. In this experience, Smith states that he and Cowdery saw Jesus Christ "standing upon the breastwork of the pulpit." According to Smiths account, Christ accepted the churchs dedication of the temple, and promised blessings according to their obedience. Following the conclusion of this vision of Christ, the account goes on to tell of Smith and Cowdery then receiving visions of Moses, Elias, and Elijah. The account in Smith&#39;s journal is the only known telling of this occurrence during his lifetime. The LDS Church canonized it as Section 110 of their Doctrine and Covenants in 1876.</p><br>
<h2>Shifting ownership</h2><br>
<p>Smiths time in Kirtland after the temple came into use was limited. In 1837, he became involved with the foundation of a bank known as the Kirtland Safety Society. The failure of this bank was a factor that caused a schism among Latter Day Saints in Kirtland. The dissenters were led by Warren Parrish, Smiths former secretary, and included Martin Harris, one of the Three Witnesses of the Book of Mormon. Parrishs group took control of the temple and other church property. By the beginning of 1838, Smith was forced to flee the state, relocating to Far West, Missouri with hundreds of loyalists. After the Mormons moved west in 1838, the temple was used by the Western Reserve Teachers Seminary. Parrish&#39;s group dissolved and by 1841 the remaining Latter Day Saints in Kirtland had come back into communion with the main body of the church, which had subsequently relocated to Nauvoo, Illinois.</p><br>
<p>A period of confusion followed Smith&#39;s death in 1844, as rival leaders and factions vied for control of the temple. In 1845, the Latter Day Saints in Kirtland, under the leadership of S. B. Stoddard, Leonard Rich, and Jacob Bump organized their own church in opposition to those of Brigham Young, James J. Strang and other leaders. This group later merged with a faction led by William E. McLellin whose president was David Whitmer, one of the Three Witnesses.</p><br>
<p>By 1848, another Latter Day Saint faction led by Hazen Aldrich and James Collin Brewster was organized in Kirtland and maintained control of the temple. This faction also dissolved and most of the members who were in Kirtland eventually joined the Community of Christ (then known as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, adding the word Reorganized to their name in 1872) led by Joseph Smith III. In 1860, a probate court in Ohio sold the Kirtland Temple as a means of paying off some debts owned by Joseph Smith&#39;s estate. Joseph Smith III and Mark Hill Forscutt purchased a quitclaim deed to the temple in 1874.</p><br>
<p>In 1880, the RLDS Church began the Kirtland Temple Suit, in an attempt to gain clear legal title to the temple. The court opinion stated that the RLDS Church was the lawful successor of the original church, but ultimately dismissed the case. Although the case had no legal bearing, the RLDS Church secured ownership of the temple through adverse possession by at least 1901.</p><br>
<p>The local RLDS congregation met in the building on a regular basis for Sunday worship until the 1950s. Due to preservation concerns, a new church was built across the street (for the congregation) and the temple saw more direct management and funding from the world church. Until early 2024, the building was used for approximately 50 to 60 worship services, classes, retreats and other special events throughout the year primarily by various Latter Day Saint denominations.</p><br>
<p>Unlike the later built Nauvoo Temple, the Kirtland Temple was never destroyed or burned down. The same stones from the original construction are still in place. Although the majority of church members left the Kirtland area for Missouri in 1838, the Kirtland Temple was never completely abandoned by the church. From its inception to the present day, it has always been operated by a group that can trace their origins to the Latter Day Saint movement. It has been a place of worship and a symbol of the movement since it was dedicated in 1836.</p><br>
<p>Community of Christ owned the Kirtland Temple for more than a century. The LDS Church and Community of Christ announced on March 5, 2024 that ownership of the site had transferred to the former as part of a $192.5 million acquisition of historic sites and objects. The transfer between the two churches began in 2021. The transfer included other historical items and buildings, like the Red Brick Store, the printer manuscript of the Book of Mormon, along with a Bible used by Joseph Smith in the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible.</p><br>
<h2>Historic site</h2><br>
<p>The Kirtland Temple was used as the meetinghouse for Kirtland&#39;s RLDS congregation until the 1950s, when a modern church was built across the street. The temple was then experienced through guided tours, community services, and pre-arranged meetings for out-of-town groups. The temple was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969 and was named a National Historic Landmark in 1977.</p><br>
<p>The visitors center has about 100,000 visitors per year, and according to Sarah Murphy from ABC4 Utah, brings in hundreds of visitors from around the world every week. During the ownership of Community of Christ, temple guides were typically local residents, usually, but not always, members of Community of Christ. During the busy summer months, college-aged adults augmented the temples staff as part of the Alma Blair Internship Program. Throughout the year, other volunteers traveled to the temple for stints as guides, maintenance staff, or gardeners. Under the ownership of the LDS Church, tours are guided by sister and senior missionaries, managed as part of the larger Historic Kirtland Village sites.</p><br>
<p>There were about 50 worship services and/or educational events held each year at the Kirtland Temple. The temple held community services for Thanksgiving, Christmas Eve, and Holy Week, as well as the annual Emma Smith Hymn Festival in June. Additionally, members of various Latter Day Saint denominations travel to the temple where they are permitted to hold their own services with prior arrangement.</p><br>
<p>A Spiritual Formation and Visitors Center was opened in March 2007. The centers exterior is inspired by that of the Kirtland Temple, and its layout has been described as reflecting a dove. It enhances the ministries of the temple by providing classroom space, worship space, a multi-use theater, offices, and a small museum. The museum contains artifacts related to the temple and original documents from the Kirtland era. Until 2024, there was also a museum gift shop which featured a broad selection of books on Latter Day Saint history and the various expressions of the movement.</p><br>
<p>Gardens are located outside the temple and immediately north of the temple on the opposite side of Maple Street is the historic Kirtland North Cemetery, which has graves dating back to the 1820s. Just beyond the cemetery to the north is the restored Joseph and Emma Smith home, while the remaining sites of Historic Kirtland Village are a short distance further north.</p><br>
<p>With the LDS Church&#39;s acquisition of the temple on March 5, 2024, it will remain a historic building and the church reopened it to the public March 25, 2024 for public tours at no charge.</p><br>
<h2>Footnotes</h2><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<h2>Further reading</h2><br>
<p>Truman O. Angell, Our Pioneer Heritage 10 (1967):195-213.</p><br>
<p>Marilyn Chiat, North American Churches. Lincolnwood, IL: Publications International, Ltd., 2004.</p><br>
<p>David J. Howlett, Kirtland Temple: The Biography of a Shared Mormon Space. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2014.</p><br>
<p>Roger Launius, The Kirtland Temple: A Historical Narrative. Independence, Missouri: Herald Publishing House, 1986.</p><br>
<p>Elwin C. Robison, The First Mormon Temple: Design, Construction, and Historic Context of the Kirtland Temple, Provo, UT: BYU Press, 1997.</p><br>
<p>Padanaram is a coastal village in South Dartmouth, Massachusetts, United States. The village is located on Buzzards Bay, more specifically near the inlet of Apponagansett Bay.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The village of Padanaram was one of many settlements that began cropping up within the town of Old Dartmouth after its purchase from the Wampanoag by members of the Plymouth Colony in 1652. During King Philip&#39;s War, English colonists residing in the area took shelter at Russell Garrison. Remains of the settlement can still be seen at the foot of Lucy Street.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-18th century, it became a shipbuilding center. In September 1778, during the American Revolution, British raiding parties attacked nearby New Bedford as part of Greys raid with a small force attacking Padanaram. The village was then known as Akin’s Landing, and following Elihu Akin driving three Loyalists out of the village in September 1778, British raiders burnt down most of the village, focusing on Akin’s properties. The raiding parties targeted Akin specifically because he had expelled the Loyalists from Dartmouth. After the raid, Akin moved to his only remaining property, a small home on Potters Hill - the Elihu Akin House. Elihu never financially recovered from the raid and died poor; he lived at the house until his death in 1794. Fixing the damage to the town from the raid cost £105,960 in 1778, which is roughly equivalent to nine million dollars in todays money. In honor of Elihu, and to commemorate his earlier shipbuilding, the village of Padanaram was called Akin’s Wharf for 20 years after the war. The town prospered as a minor whaling port and was home to a large salt works during the 19th century. As these industries died out, "the village" (as it is referred to by locals) became mostly a residential area with several yachting businesses, galleries, eateries, and shops.</p><br>
<p>The town is also the location of the Southworth Library, which was built in the late 1880s and early 1890s.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name “Padanaram” came from a prominent early resident named Laban Thatcher, who identified with the Biblical figure Laban, who resided in Paddan Aram in Mesopotamia. The village eventually adopted this new name, and dropped its earlier Wampanoag name, “Ponagansett.”</p><br>
<h2>New Bedford Yacht Club</h2><br>
<p>The New Bedford Yacht Club, while founded in New Bedford, is now located in Padanaram. The club originally founded their headquarters on nearby Fish Island in 1877. Two years later, in 1879 in order to accommodate its growing membership, the club headquarters were moved to the larger neighboring Pope Island. In 1901, the club built the station in Padanaram. It replaced the Pope Island station as the main station of the club following the 1941 sale of the island. The New Bedford Yacht Club bi-annually hosts the Buzzards Bay Regatta.</p><br>
<p>The Ivy Club, often simply Ivy, is the oldest eating club at Princeton University. It was founded in 1879 with Arthur Hawley Scribner as its first head.</p><br>
<h2>Club culture</h2><br>
<p>The club is described by F. Scott Fitzgerald in This Side of Paradise (1920) as "detached and breathlessly aristocratic". A more recent account described Ivy as the "most patrician eating club at Princeton University" where members "eat at long tables covered with crisp white linens and set with 19th-century Sheffield silver candelabra, which are lighted even when daylight streams into the windows."</p><br>
<h2>Membership</h2><br>
<p>The club was one of the last to admit women, resisting the change until spring 1991 after a lawsuit had been brought against the Ivy Club, Tiger Inn, and Cottage Club by the Princeton student Sally Frank and her lawyer Nadine Taub. The members of each class are selected through the bicker process, a series of ten screening interviews, which are followed by discussions amongst the members as to whom of the remaining to admit. Current undergraduate members host regular "Roundtable Dinners" featuring talks by faculty and alumni.</p><br>
<h2>Clubhouse</h2><br>
<p>The first clubhouse was Ivy Hall, a brownstone building on Mercer Street in Princeton that still stands. It had been constructed by Richard Stockton Field in 1847 as the home for the Princeton Law School, a short-lived venture that lasted from 1847 to 1852. From the time of its founding until its incorporation in 1883, the club was generally known as the "Ivy Hall Eating Club."</p><br>
<p>In 1883 the club purchased an empty lot on Prospect Avenue, which was a country dirt road at the time. Ivy erected a shingle-style clubhouse in 1884 on what is today the site of Colonial Club. The clubhouse was remodeled and extended in 1887-88. Following Ivy&#39;s move to new quarters across Prospect Avenue some ten years later, its second clubhouse was used by Colonial before being sold and moved to Plainsboro Township, New Jersey.</p><br>
<p>Ivys third and current clubhouse was designed in 1897 by the Philadelphia firm of Cope & Stewardson. In 2009, the club completed its most significant renovation to date. The expansion added a second wing to the facility, changing the clubs original L-shaped layout to a U. Designed by Demetri Porphyrios, the new wing includes a two-story Great Hall and a crypt to provide additional study space.</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>The following is a list of some notable members of the Ivy Club:</p><br>
<p>Hobey Baker (1914) – World War I fighter pilot, member of the Hockey Hall of Fame and USA Hockey Hall of Fame</p><br>
<p>James A. Baker III (1952) – Chief of Staff for Ronald Reagan; Secretary of Treasury and Secretary of State for George H. W. Bush</p><br>
<p>Lem Billings (1939) – confidante and "first friend" of President John F. Kennedy who was Kennedy&#39;s freshman-year roommate at Princeton</p><br>
<p>Joshua B. Bolten (1976) – White House Chief of Staff and Office of Management and Budget director under George W. Bush</p><br>
<p>Philip Bobbitt (1971) – constitutional law scholar and author of The Shield of Achilles: War, Peace, and the Course of History</p><br>
<p>Lauren Bush-Lauren (2006) – fashion model and niece of George W. Bush</p><br>
<p>Joey Cheek (2011) – speed skater who won gold and silver medals in the 2006 Winter Olympics and co-founder and president of Team Darfur</p><br>
<p>Leonard S. Coleman, Jr. (1971) – president of the National League</p><br>
<p>Frank Deford (1962) – author and sports commentator</p><br>
<p>Richard B. Fisher – philanthropist and chairman of Morgan Stanley</p><br>
<p>Moira Forbes—president and publisher, ForbesWoman</p><br>
<p>Bill Ford (1979) – Ford Motor Company</p><br>
<p>Thomas F. Gibson – first political cartoonist of USA Today and Director of Communication under Ronald Reagan</p><br>
<p>John Marshall Harlan II (1920) – Associate Justice, United States Supreme Court</p><br>
<p>Frederick Hitz – Inspector General of the Central Intelligence Agency</p><br>
<p>Ellie Kemper (2002) - American actress, comedian, and writer</p><br>
<p>Arthur Krock – four-time Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist</p><br>
<p>A.B. Krongard (1953) – executive director of the CIA</p><br>
<p>Jim Leach (1964) – USA Congressman from Iowa and chairman of the National Endowment for the Humanities</p><br>
<p>Blair Lee I (1880) – United States Senator from Maryland</p><br>
<p>Blair Lee III (1938) – Governor of Maryland</p><br>
<p>Michael Lewis (1982) – author of Moneyball and Liar&#39;s Poker</p><br>
<p>Breckinridge Long (1904) – USA diplomat in the administrations of Woodrow Wilson and Franklin Delano Roosevelt</p><br>
<p>Allan Marquand (1874) – logician whose Marquand diagram was a forerunner of the Karnaugh map</p><br>
<p>Richard King Mellon – financier, banker, and philanthropist who led the urban renewal of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania</p><br>
<p>John Aristotle Phillips – entrepreneur specializing in political campaigns who became famous for attempting to design a nuclear weapon while a student.</p><br>
<p>John Rawls (1931) – political philosopher, author of A Theory of Justice, originator of the concepts of original position and veil of ignorance</p><br>
<p>Laurance Rockefeller (1932) – venture capitalist, philanthropist and environmentalist</p><br>
<p>Randall Rothenberg (1978) – president and CEO of the Interactive Advertising Bureau</p><br>
<p>Saud bin Faisal bin Abdul Aziz (1964) – Saudi Arabian Foreign Minister</p><br>
<p>Arthur Hawley Scribner (1881) – first head of the eating club and president of publisher Charles Scribner&#39;s Sons</p><br>
<p>Booth Tarkington (1893) – Pulitzer Prize–winning novelist</p><br>
<p>Jim Thompson (1928) – OSS officer and Thai silk entrepreneur who famously and mysteriously disappeared in Malaysia in 1967</p><br>
<p>Terdema Ussery – president and CEO of the Dallas Mavericks professional basketball team</p><br>
<p>Rodman Wanamaker – arts patron, aviation pioneer, and founder of the Professional Golfers&#39; Association of America (PGA)</p><br>
<p>Woodrow Wilson – USA President, 1913–1921 (Associate Graduate Member)</p><br>
<p>John Gilbert Winant – Governor of New Hampshire and USA Ambassador to the United Kingdom</p><br>
<p>Frank G. Wisner (1961) – public servant and diplomat who served as USA Ambassador to Zambia, Egypt, the Philippines, and India.</p><br>
<p>Jacob Candelaria-New Mexico state senator, first openly gay man elected to the New Mexico Legislature and civil rights attorney.</p><br>
<p>Bethesda Academy  is a boys&#39; school and former orphanage located in unincorporated Chatham County, Georgia, in the United States, near Savannah. Its historic building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>It was founded in 1740 as an orphanage by evangelist George Whitefield, in the 18th century on his 500 acre (1,600 m) land grant about 10 mi south of Savannah, in the newly founded colony of Georgia. Whitefield called the orphanage Bethesda, which means "House of Mercy," for he hoped many acts of mercy would take place there. On March 25, 1740, construction began on the orphanage buildings. The main house was two stories high with twenty rooms. Two smaller buildings were built behind the orphanage; one was designed to be an infirmary and the other a workhouse.</p><br>
<p>Whitefield wanted the orphanage to be a place of strong Calvinist influence with a wholesome atmosphere and strong discipline. Boys were taught trades so that they could earn a living as adults. Younger children learned spinning and carding, and all boys were taught mechanics and agriculture. Whitefield hoped that the orphanage would become the foundation of a university.</p><br>
<p>While the children grew most of the orphanage food, the enterprise was more expensive than anticipated, and Whitefield went into debt. Benjamin Franklin suggested that due to the scarcity of workmen and materials in Georgia, it might be better to move the orphanage and its children to Philadelphia. Whitefield refused to move the orphanage because his contributors donated money specifically for the Georgia project.</p><br>
<p>At his death, Whitefield bequeathed the orphanage and his slaves to the Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon, a charitable sponsor in England. He asked her to maintain the orphanage under its existing principles, and establish a college. However, she was not able to provide the oversight from 3,000 mi away, and the orphanage almost closed.</p><br>
<p>In 1773, fire destroyed the home. Three years later, the American Revolution stymied plans to add a college. After several administrative changes, a new building and society, the Bethesda Home for Boys was established on the same site.</p><br>
<h2>Bethesda and slavery</h2><br>
<p>In the early 18th century, slavery had been outlawed in Georgia. In 1749, Whitefield campaigned for its legalization, arguing that the territory would never be prosperous unless farms were able to use slave labor. He began his fourth visit to America in 1751 advocating slavery, viewing its re-legalization in Georgia as necessary to make his plantation profitable. Partially through his campaigns and written pleas to the Georgia Trustees, it was re-legalized in 1751. Whitefield then purchased slaves to work at Bethesda Orphanage. To help raise money for the orphanage, he also employed slaves at his Providence Plantation. When Whitefield died, he bequeathed his slaves to the Countess of Huntingdon.</p><br>
<h2>Modern times</h2><br>
<p>Bethesda has not been an orphanage for many years, but continues to focus on youth in the greater Savannah area. Bethesda is a private boarding and day school for boys in grades 6-12 and, in April 2011, the Bethesda Home for Boys was renamed Bethesda Academy to better reflect their mission and commitment to the education of young men. In 2015, Bethesda kicked off its 275th Anniversary year.</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p>Demaray, Donald E. Pulpit Giants; what made them great. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1973).</p><br>
<p>Macartney, Clarence Edward Noble. Six Kings of the American pulpit. (Philadelphia, The Westminster Press, 1942).</p><br>
<p>McGraw, James. Great Evangelical Preachers of Yesterday. (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1961).</p><br>
<p>Whitefield, George. George Whitefield&#39;s Journals. (Banner of Truth Trust, 1960).</p><br>
<p>The Drake, a Hilton Hotel, 140 East Walton Place, Chicago, Illinois, is a luxury, full-service hotel, located downtown on the lake side of Michigan Avenue two blocks north of the John Hancock Center and a block south of Oak Street Beach at the top of the Magnificent Mile. Overlooking Lake Michigan, it was founded in 1920, and soon became one of Chicago&#39;s landmark hotels and a longtime rival of the Palmer House.</p><br>
<p>It has 535 bedrooms (including 74 suites), a six-room Presidential Suite, several restaurants, two large ballrooms, the "Palm Court" (a club-like, secluded lobby, where afternoon tea is served), and Club International (a members-only club introduced in the 1940s). Designed in the Italian Renaissance style by the firm of Marshall and Fox, the hotel&#39;s silhouette and sign contribute to the Gold Coast skyline.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Second-generation hotel magnates Tracy Drake and John Drake Jnr. acquired the property from the estate of Potter Palmer in 1916. The building was financed by a syndicate of family friends including members of the Palmer, Armour, Swift, and McCormick families and the hotel&#39;s architects, Benjamin Marshall and Charles Fox. Including the land, construction, and furnishing, the Drake cost $10 million, which in present-day dollars is roughly $120 million.</p><br>
<p>At the time of its completion, the Drake provided a transition between the fashionable Gold Coast residential area and the new commercial north Michigan Avenue. The buildings Walton Place main entrance avoided the commotion of the commercial thoroughfare and increased vehicular access. The Drake brothers upheld the family reputation as a main focus of social, commercial, and political life in Chicago with its ownership and management of the citys two most prominent hotels as Michigan Avenue bookends. (See Blackstone Hotel.)</p><br>
<p>The Drake served as the original studios of radio station WGN when it was renamed from WDAP in 1924.</p><br>
<p>William Drake and his wife Elizabeth lived at the hotel for several years until the family lost the property during the Great Depression.</p><br>
<p>When Francesco ("Frank The Enforcer Nitti") Nitto headed the Chicago Outfit in the 1930s and early 1940s, he maintained his office for a time in a suite of rooms. From the 1950s through the 1980s, the Drake Hotel maintained its status, continuing to attract several notable guests, and became even more prominent as the Magnificent Mile further developed and the residential Gold Coast saw parts of it, primarily Oak Street, developed with luxury boutiques, fine jewelry stores, and spas. Such development allowed the centrally located Drake Hotel to act as a connection of sorts for the burgeoning, prestigious areas.</p><br>
<p>Hilton International assumed operation of the hotel in 1980, under their Vista International Hotels brand. Hilton International purchased the property outright in 1996. They renovated the hotel from 1998 to 2003, at a cost of $45 million. In 2005 and 2006, owners added a fitness center, executive conference center, and new furnishings in all the guest rooms at a cost of $15 million. In 2005, Hilton Hotels Corporation acquired Hilton International, and The Drake became part of the Hilton Hotels Corporation and The Hilton Family of Hotels.</p><br>
<h2>Notable visitors</h2><br>
<p>The Drake has been frequented by many heads of state, assorted celebrities, international personalities, and members of the European aristocracy (some as long-term residents) since opening in 1920. Notable guests included Winston Churchill, Eleanor Roosevelt, Presidents Herbert Hoover, Dwight Eisenhower, Gerald Ford and Ronald Reagan. Prince Charles and Diana, Princess of Wales (albeit separately), Elizabeth Taylor, Judy Garland, Hugh Hefner, Owe Lundberg, Theodore S. Wiles, Walt Disney, Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Charles Lindbergh, the Marchese and Marchesa Chiaramonte-Ragusa. Prince Felix Yusupov, Ukrainian President Viktor Yushchenko, King Hussein of Jordan, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, and Julia Roberts. Joe DiMaggio and Marilyn Monroe carved their initials into the wooden bar of the Cape Cod Room during a visit; this can still be seen today. Diana, Princess of Wales, stayed at the Drake in 1996 during her only visit to Chicago, a year before her death.</p><br>
<h2>Urban legends</h2><br>
<p>According to local legend, John Drake (1826–1895) (the father of this hotels founders) was standing with a hotel owner watching the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. The owner, seeing his hotel threatened by the flames, offered to sell it for any price. Drake noticed that the wind direction was changing and made an offer and so founded the Drake Hotel. If this were true it would have occurred 49 years before the hotels founding. The story is possibly confused with the interim New Tremont House purchase by John Drake, at the time of the Great Fire.</p><br>
<p>Additionally, the hotel features in several ghost stories.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Scenes from the movies Risky Business, My Best Friends Wedding, Hero, What Women Want, Continental Divide, Flags of Our Fathers, Wicker Park, Mission: Impossible, and Carol were filmed or at least set at the hotel. Mission: Impossible mentions Jon Voights character Jim Phelps as having stayed there shortly before the events of the film. Agent X, season one, partially revolves around photos the Vice President (Sharon Stone) receives of her deceased husband having an affair at the Drake. In an episode of Curb Your Enthusiasm, a character falsely claims that the Cobb salad was invented at the hotel. The Family Matters episode "Dream Date" has Laura Winslow and Steve Urkel attending their senior prom at the Drake Hotel.</p><br>
<h2>Afternoon tea</h2><br>
<p>Visitors to Chicago are often drawn to afternoon tea, a tradition that dates back to 1840. The Empress of Japan, Princess Diana, and Queen Elizabeth II have all participated in the custom. Tea is held in the Palm Court, which is decorated entirely in white. The hotel has a specialty custom-made "Palm Court" blend, which is made out of four teas: Indian Assam, chocolate notes from Chinese Keemun, Ceylon, and a Formosa Oolong. Live harp music occurs Wednesday through Sunday. In 2013, USA Today ranked the Drake Hotel as one of the best hotels for afternoon tea in the country.</p><br>
<h2>Retail tenants</h2><br>
<p>The Drake, a Hilton Hotel has Chanel, Georg Jensen, and Van Cleef & Arpels as retail tenants, all of which have a street-level presence on the Magnificent Mile.</p><br>
<h2>Footnotes</h2><br>
<p>The Van Cortlandt House, also known as the Van Cortlandt Mansion, is the oldest known surviving house in the Bronx in New York City. It is located in the southwestern portion of Van Cortlandt Park. The house is operated as a historic house museum known as the Van Cortlandt House Museum. Built by Frederick Van Cortlandt and completed in 1749, the house is a -story Georgian building with a rubblestone facade and Georgian-style interiors. It served as a residence of one branch of the Van Cortlandt family for 140 years before it reopened as a museum in 1897.</p><br>
<p>The house is built on an estate that Jacobus Van Cortlandt acquired in the 1690s. Frederick began constructing the building in 1748, although he did not live to see its completion, and Fredericks son James inherited the house. During the American Revolutionary War, both British and American troops variously occupied the house; the structure was passed down to various members of the Van Cortlandt family through the 19th century. The city government acquired the house in 1888 as part of the construction of Van Cortlandt Park and initially used the building as a police barracks. The Society of Colonial Dames of the State of New York leased the house in 1896 and opened it to the public on May 28, 1897. Various modifications were made to the grounds over the subsequent decades, and a caretakers house was built in the 1910s. The house underwent renovations in the 1960s and 1980s.</p><br>
<p>The original house is L-shaped, with wings to the south and east; the caretakers house to the north is attached to the rest of the structure. The mansion has a largely plain facade, except for brick keystones that depict Van Cortlandt family members faces. The interiors include a kitchen in the basement; two parlors, an entry hall, and a dining room on the first floor; and bedrooms on the second and third floors. The museum has historically presented various performances and events at the house, and it operates tours and educational programs. Critics have praised both the museums exhibits and the houses architecture. The house&#39;s facade and interior are New York City designated landmarks, and the building is a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>The Van Cortlandt House is located at the southwestern corner of Van Cortlandt Park, near the Riverdale neighborhood of the Bronx in New York City. It is surrounded by the park&#39;s Parade Ground to the north, the Memorial Grove to the west, a swimming pool and the Van Cortlandt Stadium to the south, and a burial ground and Van Cortlandt Lake to the east.</p><br>
<p>The Van Cortlandt Houses site was a salt marsh along Tibbetts Brook until the 1690s, when the nearby Van Cortlandt Lake was formed along the brooks course. When the house was built in 1748, it stood on the eastern slope of a set of hills along the eastern bank of the Hudson River. The house and surrounding landscape are preserved as part of Van Cortlandt Park, although the fields around the mansion date from the Parade Ground&#39;s construction in the late 19th century. The grounds overlooked the Spuyten Duyvil valley to the south, the Palisades to the west, and Tibbetts Brook to the east; the view to the south was interrupted by hills in Fordham, Bronx, and in Manhattan.</p><br>
<p>Originally, there was a driveway from the side entrance to the front entrance. The driveway was paved with stones, so the houses occupants could hear visitors on the driveway before they arrived. The houses approach is flanked by gateposts that were once topped by wooden bird sculptures; There were horse chestnuts on either side of the gateposts. These included manmade terraces, large box trees, and water features such as fountains. In the early 1900s, a Dutch garden was built just south of the mansion, with a canal on three sides, a fountain in the center, and four square sections around it. The garden has since been replaced with trees and a herb garden.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Prior to European settlement, the Lenape Native Americans occupied the site of the Van Cortlandt Mansion, and there was a nearby Native American village known as Keskeskick. Adriaen van der Donck, a Dutch settler, was the first European to occupy the Van Cortlandt Houses site, having bought the land from the Dutch West India Company in 1646. Van der Donck died in 1655. Following the takeover of New Netherland by the British in 1664, the claim to the estate was awarded to van der Doncks brother-in-law, Elias Doughty, who proceeded to sell off the portions of the property. When Philipses wife died, he remarried the daughter of Dutch brewer Oloff Stevense Van Cortlandt, herself a widow. Philipses daughter Eva later married Jacobus Van Cortlandt, who was Olofs son and Philipses second wife&#39;s brother.</p><br>
<p>Jacobus Van Cortlandt acquired parcels from Philipse through 1699 and dammed Tibbetts Brook to create Van Cortlandt Lake. The property&#39;s proximity to Tibbetts Brook, which drained into the Harlem River and Spuyten Duyvil Creek to the south, made it easy for Van Cortlandt to ship grain and timber products by water. When Frederick inherited the land, the site was considered part of lower Yonkers in Westchester County. Several slaves also worked on the plantation.</p><br>
<h3>Residential use</h3><br>
<p>The Van Cortlandt House is the oldest known surviving house in what is now the Bronx, as well as one of three surviving 18th-century buildings in the borough. Along with the Bartow–Pell Mansion, it is one of two remaining manor houses in the Bronx.</p><br>
<h4>1740s to 1770s</h4><br>
<p>Frederick began developing the Van Cortlandt House on the property in 1748. According to the Van Cortlandt House Museum, Frederick likely did not build the house himself, despite being credited as the builder. Fredericks family used the Tippett house while their new structure was being built. The mansion was built in a vale that the historian Robert Bolton described as "about one mile north from Kings bridge", next to what is now Broadway. the foundation of Van der Doncks old house remained intact in front of the Van Cortlandt House. East of the mansion was a mill dam across Tibbetts Brook, a small mill, and the Van Cortlandts previous residence. To the northeast of the mansion were woodlands. In Fredericks will, signed on October 2, 1749, he indicated that the house was almost complete.</p><br>
<p>Frederick died before the house was finished, and he bequeathed the estate to his son, Jacobus (James) Van Cortlandt. His bequest also included either 11 or 12 slaves who worked on the plantation. Vault Hill, the Van Cortlandt family burial ground to the north of the mansion, After its completion, the Van Cortlandt House was often called the manor house, although this was a misnomer, as the "manor" name applied to the Van Cortlandt Manor in Croton-on-Hudson, New York. The mansion was also called "Lower Cortlandts" to reduce confusion with Frederick Van Cortlandts farm, "Upper Cortlandt&#39;s", west of Broadway.</p><br>
<p>The family used the grist mill and saw mill next to the lake. Within the house, the family salted the pork and beef; cured the ham and bacon; and stored the various fruits that grew on the premises. Slaves performed many of the tasks around the house, including laundry, cleaning, and cooking.</p><br>
<h4>Revolutionary War</h4><br>
<p>The Van Cortlandt family land served as a neutral ground during the American Revolutionary War and was used by both the Loyalists and the Patriots. On May 30, 1775, the New York Provincial Congress placed James Van Cortlandt on a committee to create a report on whether it was feasible to build a fort near his familys house. Although James was described as not having been "a very active loyalist", he was not fully committed to the Patriots cause either, Some members of the Van Cortlandt family continued to reside at the mansion during most of the war.</p><br>
<p>The grounds were used by Patriot militia leaders Comte de Rochambeau, Marquis de Lafayette, and George Washington. The house itself was Washingtons headquarters after his troops were defeated in the 1776 Battle of Long Island, and Washington stayed at the house prior to the Battle of White Plains. placing it behind British-held ground. and Digby gifted Augustus Van Cortlandt a pair of wooden bird sculptures that had been taken from a Spanish privateer. American troops unsuccessfully tried to retake the house in 1777. A British captain surnamed Rowe was severely wounded in a battle nearby in 1780, and he died in the house just after his fiancée arrived, giving rise to rumors that Rowes ghost haunted the house.</p><br>
<p>James Van Cortlandt moved away during the war because of his poor health, and he died in 1781. Washington returned to the house in 1781 to strategize with Rochambeau while their troops waited outside on what is now the Parade Ground and Vault Hill. his troops instead headed south to Virginia, defeating the British in the siege of Yorktown. Washington used the house one final time in 1783 after the Treaty of Paris. The British had just withdrawn their troops from Manhattan, and Washington and George Clinton were getting ready to enter the island, stopping over at the house before doing so.</p><br>
<h4>Late 18th and 19th centuries</h4><br>
<p>Augustus Van Cortlandts family moved to the house after the Revolution ended. Augustus Van Cortlandt continued to own the house until he died in 1823; As such, his son-in-law Henry White (who had married Augustuss daughter Anna) received his life estate,</p><br>
<p>Augustus White Van Cortlandt moved the mill on the estate to the shore of Van Cortlandt Lake in 1823. The younger Augustus owned the house until his death on April 1, 1839, upon which he bequeathed the house to his brother Henry White Van Cortlandt, who had no children and survived only until October 1839. Augustus Bibby owned the house for four and a half decades; An account from the late 1840s described the house as having a front garden with box trees, which had been planted upon a set of fountains. The old mill and the Van Cortlandts original house still existed on the estate, and the houses interior was decorated with various portraits.</p><br>
<p>New York City annexed the southern part of Westchester County in 1874, and the Van Cortlandt estate became part of the Bronx. In June 1884, New York governor Grover Cleveland signed the New Parks Act into law, authorizing the creation of a system of parks in the Bronx, including what would become Van Cortlandt Park. The act gave the city the right to acquire 700 acre from Augustus Bibby via eminent domain. The Van Cortlandt family did not fully vacate the house until 1888, and the mill next to Van Cortlandt Lake was in use until 1889. The New York Herald Tribune described the house and surrounding property as having "for generations symbolized the vast wealth in real estate amassed by Oloff and Jacobus Van Cortlandt".</p><br>
<h3>Use as museum</h3><br>
<p>A portion of the Van Cortlandt estate was sold to the government of New York City on December 12, 1888, and converted into Van Cortlandt Park; The majority of the grain fields were converted into a sprawling lawn dubbed the "Parade Ground", while the Van Cortlandt House was preserved. Parts of the mansion were repaired and repainted in 1889. For several years thereafter, the family of the house&#39;s caretaker were the only residents, and military officers used the house once a year during field day activities in the park. Until 1896, the mansion also served as a barracks for the New York State Police, which had been assigned to guard the bison that roamed Van Cortlandt Park. The New York City Police Department and the New York National Guard used the house as well, and the bison themselves stayed there until they were moved to the Bronx Zoo.</p><br>
<h4>Creation and early years</h4><br>
<p>One of New York Citys park commissioners proposed in March 1893 that the mansion be converted into a museum for Revolutionary War artifacts. The park commissioners provided $187 for interior painting and papering in December, and they provided $250 for renovation work the next month. The citys Park Board voted in 1894 to add an inscription honoring Washington to the mansion. In early 1896, the Society of Colonial Dames of the State of New York applied to the park commissioners for permission to repair the mansion and operate it as a historic house museum. The Park Board agreed in December 1896 to lease the mansion to the society; the initial lease lasted for 25 years. The society then began renovating the house. The project, which cost between $4,000 and $5,000, involved restoring the house to its original condition.</p><br>
<p>The Colonial Dames took over the mansion on May 27, 1897, and opened the house to the public on that date. At the time, the Van Cortlandt Mansion was one of a few old residences preserved on public grounds in New York City, along with Gracie Mansion. It was also one of the first historic house museums in the city; it was followed by other residences such as the Morris–Jumel Mansion, King Manor, and Dyckman House. The Van Cortlandt Mansion was one of the few mid-18th-century buildings in New York City that still retained its original carpentry. The museum was open to the public every day of the week and was free most of the time. On Saturdays, it charged each guest 25 cents to raise money for the house&#39;s maintenance.</p><br>
<p>A colonial garden around the house was approved in May 1897 and announced to the public that July. and the New York City Board of Estimate allocated $15,000 that October for the garden. The Colonial Dames dedicated a tablet outside the mansion, which described the house&#39;s history, in late 1900. At the time, the museum had recorded more than 50,000 visitors over the previous four years. and the colonial garden adjacent to the mansion was completed in 1903. A window from the old Rhinelander Sugar House was brought to the Bronx in 1903 and installed next to the mansion.</p><br>
<h4>1910s to 1970s</h4><br>
<p>The Colonial Dames began raising money in the early 1910s for an expansion of the museums collection. The Dames also announced plans to build an annex to the house, but Park Board landscape architect Charles Downing Lay vetoed these plans in April 1912. The New York City Department of Parks and Recreation (NYC Parks) received bids for the annexs construction in 1913 but initially rejected all of them. After a subsequent contract was approved, annex, consisting of a caretaker&#39;s apartment adjacent to the main house, was finished in 1916 or 1917, just before World War I. The Department of Parks awarded a contract for repairs to the house at the end of 1914. The architect Norman Isham was hired to renovate the mansion, which included restoring the fireplaces, adding paneling, moving the radiators, and installing interior shutters.</p><br>
<p>By the early 1930s, the Van Cortlandt House saw 50,000 to 60,000 visitors each year, including many foreign-born visitors. A walnut tree was planted in front of the mansion in 1938, replacing an older tree underneath which Washington had once stood. The guns outside the Van Cortlandt House were scrapped in 1942 after then–parks commissioner Robert Moses found that the weaponry was "of neither historic nor esthetic value". The New York Herald Tribune reported in the mid-1940s that the Van Cortlandt House had 100,000 annual visitors. During the late 1950s, a group led by New York State Assembly member Mildred F. Taylor found that the building was still in good condition.</p><br>
<p>After various members of the Colonial Dames provided donations "to make the mansion a more authoritative eighteenth-century home", the Colonial Dames closed the Van Cortlandt House in December 1960 for what was supposed to be a four-month renovation. The houses reopening was delayed by two months to June 1961. This renovation involved restoring the walls and the original floors, but was only open on weekends by the 1970s. It had several caretakers during this time. A poet, Hagop Yacoubian, began caring for the house in 1959, shortly after coming to the USA from Armenia. Robert and Ann Porter, who were hired as the museums caretakers in 1973 following a chance meeting with one of the museum&#39;s directors, sometimes hosted private parties in the house when the museum was closed. although the Colonial Dames still operated the house and provided decorations and furniture.</p><br>
<h4>1980s to present</h4><br>
<p>The grounds of the house were landscaped during 1980, and the house itself was closed in 1986 for a renovation. In addition, the parlors were repainted in their original colors. The Van Cortlandt Mansion was one of the founding members of the Historic House Trust, established in 1989. At the time, the houses roof needed to be replaced. Students from Brooklyn College conducted excavations around the houses site between 1990 and 1992. though the courts were approved anyway.</p><br>
<p>By the mid-1990s, some rooms had peeling paint or water damage, and there were concerns that the furniture had bug infestations. The museums director Laura Carpenter Correa wanted to renovate the house for $1 million, and the houses roof was to be repaired with $250,000 from the New York City Council and the Bronx borough president&#39;s office. However, there was no funding for further repairs, and the museum had only a $100,000 annual operating budget. The Colonial Dames was still operating the Van Cortlandt House Museum in the early 21st century.</p><br>
<p>Brooklyn College students undertook further archeological excavations at the site in 2003, The house&#39;s dining room was restored in 2015; the work involved a restoration of the paneling, wallpaper, and fireplace tiles. The mansion was closed in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, and it reopened next year for self-guided tours. and the fence around the house was to be rebuilt in the mid-2020s.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The house, designed by an unknown architect, is built in the Georgian style and is stories tall. The house has an L-shaped plan, with wings extending along the south and east sides. while a caretaker&#39;s apartment (adjacent to the main house) dates to before World War I.</p><br>
<h3>Exterior</h3><br>
<p>The house is built of dressed fieldstone. Late-19th-century sources describe the house as having a rubblestone facade. One corner of the house contains a cornerstone bearing the year 1748. The first story is raised above the ground, so there are several entrances with wooden porches, each of which contains a small stoop with railings. The original doors were replaced with Dutch-style doors at some point in the houses history. The exterior of the house largely lacks elaborate decorations. Despite the paucity of ornate ornamentation, one descendant, Catharine Van Cortlandt Mathews, wrote that the design "suggests to a large degree the substantial comfort of the era which it represents". Next to the original L-shaped structure is the caretakers apartment, which also has a rubblestone facade and brick window frames. The caretaker&#39;s apartment occupies the northern portion of the grounds, creating a C-shaped structure.</p><br>
<p>The window openings are surrounded by brick frames The windowsills were incorporated into the outer walls, and the sills on the second story are of a slightly different design from those on the first story. There are keystones above the windows, which contain carvings of grotesque masks. The grotesques bear various facial expressions, and each mask has a distinct design, representing a different Cortlandt. Local historian William Arthur Tieck said that the bricks were laid so the highest-quality brick faced outward, while ordinary brick faced inward. According to the National Park Service, the Van Cortlandt House was the only structure in the area that used grotesque masks as decoration, although Mathews cited the decorations as having been common in the Netherlands.</p><br>
<p>At the top of the facade is a cornice that supports a protruding soffit. The underside of the soffit has modillions set at wide intervals. The main house is capped by a mansard roof with a slate surface; there are no railings or decks above the roof. Seven dormer windows protrude from the roof: three facing east, one facing west, and three facing south. Each dormer contains a six-over-six sash window, and there is a triangular pediment above each window. The house contained multiple brick chimney stacks, similar to manors in the Hudson Valley. At the time of the house&#39;s construction, not many houses used multiple stacks, but this arrangement allowed heat to be provided to the majority of rooms.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>In general, the interior has a Georgian-style design and layout, and the rooms had fireplaces on their north walls and windows on at least one of the other three walls. Elaborately carved woodwork is used throughout the house, and there are several fireplaces with Dutch tiles.</p><br>
<p>Unlike other urban mansions, but typical of rural estates, the formal entertaining rooms (such as the dining room and parlors) were placed on the first floor. The rear of the house had a service wing, where servants could move about without guests noticing. As built, the first story&#39;s southern wing had an entrance hall flanked by two parlors, while the eastern wing had a side hall and dining room on that story.</p><br>
<h4>Basement</h4><br>
<p>The kitchen is within the raised basement. There are two small windows near the top of the western wall, which may have been intended as defensive loopholes. The basements ceiling has low wooden beams, and were hand-crafted out of cypress and cedar. Water for the kitchen was originally sourced from Vault Hill. There is a Dutch brick oven embedded in the kitchens wall. On one wall is a wide, short fireplace with a hearth and an arched opening. A dresser and a porcelain closet occupied the kitchen. There is also a newer basement with a classroom and an auditorium. The museum&#39;s restrooms are also in the basement.</p><br>
<h4>First story</h4><br>
<p>The front hall is accessed from the main entrance on the south end of the building. Doorways with eared frames lead to parlors on the west and east walls. The stairways high ceiling was intended as a symbol of wealth when the house was built. Behind the front hall is the rear hall, which has a simple stairway and leads both to the dining room and to a servants entrance. The rear hall was added shortly after Frederick Van Cortlandt died, when the house was being finished, and provided a private entrance for Frederick&#39;s widow Frances.</p><br>
<p>To the left (west) of the front hall is the western parlor, which served as Washington&#39;s quarters in 1783. On the northern wall is a fireplace surrounded by blue-and-white tiles, Pilasters separate the fireplace from an arched cupboard on either side; each cupboard has two paneled doors and a set of shelves for storing porcelain. The rest of the north wall is painted blue and is paneled, while the three other walls are made of white plaster with a baseboard, a dado rail, and a molding at the ceiling. The south wall has three windows.</p><br>
<p>To the right (east) of the front hall is the eastern parlor, which was intended as a formal room. the overmantel depicts Adam and Eve, a serpent, and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil.</p><br>
<p>The dining room is in the eastern wing, separated from the eastern parlor by the rear hall, The walls are made of light plaster above dark buff wainscoting, and a chimney occupies the north wall. Atop the wall was a ceiling molding, which likely dated from the 19th century.</p><br>
<h4>Upper stories</h4><br>
<p>On the second floor, there is a hallway in the center of the southern wing, which connects with the house&#39;s main stairway. At the south end of the hallway is a sash window with inward-facing shutters and a seating area.</p><br>
<p>Next to the hallway are two rooms, one each to the west and east. These bedrooms both contain white walls; doorways with molded frames; fireplaces with paneling and white tiles; windows with internal shutters; cornices above the windows. The western room was known as the Washington bedroom The north wall of the Washington bedroom has a fireplace flanked by closets, similar to the cupboards on the first-floor western parlor. A third bedroom to the northeast has a fireplace with allegorical Dutch tiles. One of the bedrooms was named the Monroe room because one of the family&#39;s maids had married a man surnamed Monroe.</p><br>
<p>A narrow U-shaped stairway in the second-floor hall continues up to the third floor. On the third floor were two smaller rooms for servants, one of which was in an incomplete condition.</p><br>
<h2>Operations</h2><br>
<p>The New York City Department of Parks and Recreation owns the Van Cortlandt House.</p><br>
<h3>Collections</h3><br>
<p>When the house opened as a museum, the western parlor was set aside specifically as a museum, while the other rooms displayed memorabilia from Colonial Dames and their friends. In the eastern parlor were furniture such as chairs, a writing desk, a candle stand, and four chalk artworks. The western bedroom on the second story featured furniture from Washington&#39;s time at the house, such as his bed, a mahogany footrest, a carved clock, and bed steps. The eastern bedroom had a chest, printing press, and cradle, while the spinning room featured several tools used for needlework.</p><br>
<p>In the 20th century, several objects were added to the collection, such as handmade liquor bottles that had been excavated in 1902. and one parlor was cited as having a Chippendale mirror and a secretarial desk. The upstairs rooms retained their old four-poster beds with tapestries. The house displayed objects of various sizes, in addition to china and furniture. On the third floor, there was a nursery with children&#39;s objects such as a bed and tea dishes.</p><br>
<p>By the 1970s, the western parlor featured a snuff box from Peter Stuyvesant, pistols from Aaron Burr, and an Armenian rug. The eastern parlor had a cello, spinet, and piecrust table; the dining room had plates, set for a meal; and the kitchen had various utensils, as well as objects like a powder horn and a rifle. In the modern-day dining room, there is a set of drawers, six chairs, and a table.</p><br>
<h3>Events</h3><br>
<p>After the museum opened, it began hosting monthly "antiquarian exhibits" in 1903. The museums other early exhibits included displays of antique pewter, miniatures of Colonial portraits, and needlework portraits. The museum hosted exhibits of colonial documents, paintings, and books in the 1920s, and it showed glass, silverware, china, and pottery from the 17th and 18th centuries during the 1950s. The Colonial Dames has hosted live performances on the museums behalf; for example, it staged a play at the Alvin Theatre in 1960 to raise money for the house. By the 1970s, the house presented St. Nicholas Day performances, the Bronx Arts Ensembles weekend concerts, Bronx Bicentennial activities, and demonstrations of Revolutionary-era military activities. In the late 20th century, the house continued to present events such as concerts, St. Nicholas Day carols, childrens programs, and historical lectures.</p><br>
<p>In the 21st century, the museum hosted events such as historical reenactments. The museum gives tours throughout the year, including both self-guided tours and those led by docents. The house also hosts special events.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<h3>Critical reception and media</h3><br>
<p>In 1889, one reporter described the building as "solid, substantial, massive", having been preserved "in splendid condition". Conversely, a writer for The American Architect said in 1919 that the house displayed too many objects that "are not relevant to the house or its history and are misleading in suggestion".</p><br>
<p>One critic, writing in 1927, said the Van Cortlandt House, along with the Gracie Mansion and the Morris–Jumel Mansion, were among the few old houses in New York City that "retain some of their former dignity and beauty of surroundings". Another writer in 1964 described the house as having "interior paneling and furnishings of the first rank", while a reporter for the Philadelphia Inquirer said in 1984 that it was the Bronxs "most prestigious house". Bronx historian Lloyd Ultan characterized the house in 1995 as being "highly significant to the history of the nation" due to its use during the American Revolutionary War. Times critic Mimi Sheraton wrote in 2001 that the houses "almost rustic Georgian simplicity" contrasted with the grandeur of the Bartow–Pell Mansion.</p><br>
<p>The house has been shown in various media works. The Van Cortlandt House&#39;s historical importance had been recognized as early as 1914, when the New York City Art Commission took pictures of the mansion and other notable sites across the city; at the time, cameras were still relatively uncommon. The Van Cortlandt House was also depicted in a mural painted in the Bronx County Courthouse in 1934. In addition, a depiction of the house was displayed at the City Gallery at 2 Columbus Circle in 1981, and the mansion stood in for an Irish house on an episode of the TV series Boardwalk Empire.</p><br>
<h3>Landmark designations</h3><br>
<p>The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated the Van Cortlandt House as a city landmark in March 1966, and the Board of Estimate ratified the landmark designation that August. This made the mansion one of the first residences in the Bronx to be designated as a city landmark. The mansion was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1967 and became a National Historic Landmark in 1976. The LPC designated the interiors of the Van Cortlandt Mansion as a city landmark in July 1975; the designation covered several Georgian-style rooms.</p><br>
<p>Sam Black Church, known today as Sam Black United Methodist Church, is an historic Carpenter Gothic-style church located at Sam Black Church near the unincorporated community of Smoot in Greenbrier County, West Virginia.</p><br>
<p>The historic white frame church was built in 1902 and named in honor of Reverend Sam Black, a circuit-riding Southern Methodist preacher who died in 1899. It is a small one story building with a gable roof. It features a square, open bell tower with a hipped roof. It is located at the intersection of Interstate 64 and USA Route 60 on the Midland Trail, a National Scenic Byway.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999.</p><br>
<p>Broad Street is a 15 mi road located in the independent city of Richmond, Virginia, and adjacent Henrico County. Broad Street is significant to Richmond due to the many commercial establishments that have been built along it throughout Richmond&#39;s history. From downtown through miles into the suburbs, the street is largely dedicated to retailing and offices, including regional and neighborhood shopping centers and malls.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The east end of Broad Street is located at the northeastern edge of Chimborazo Park. It extends through Church Hill to Downtown Richmond. Also known as USA Route 250 west of Downtown Richmond, it extends west through Richmond&#39;s West End all the way to the outermost suburbs of Richmond just beyond Short Pump near the intersection of I-295 and I-64.</p><br>
<p>Continuing west into Goochland County Broad Street becomes Broad Street Rd. USA Route 250; the road extends all the way to Sandusky, OH.</p><br>
<p>The GRTC Pulse bus rapid transit line follows Broad Street from its terminus at the Willow Lawn station on the western edge of the city east to 14th Street in Downtown Richmond.</p><br>
<h2>History and development</h2><br>
<h3>Origins</h3><br>
<p>When the city was originally laid out circa 1744 by Col. William Mayo, Richmond was a small area along the James River. What is now called East Broad Street was its northern border. The street was situated uphill from the town. Due to gullies and other terrain issues, it was hard to get to, from the central Main Street area, until Capitol Square was built. The Broad corridor was referred to as "upper country."</p><br>
<p>Richmonds city streets had no names until 1780, when Thomas Jeffersons plan named it H Street. It was informally referred to as Haxall street for a while, but the name didn&#39;t stick. "H" remained the name until Broad Street acquired its current name in 1845. Areas north of that were what an early chronicler called the non-tax paying side, as they were outside of city limits. To the west, Broad connected to Richmond Road. Broad Street ceased to be the county line when an adjoining portion of Henrico County was annexed by the jurisdictionally independent City of Richmond in 1867.</p><br>
<h3>Downtown</h3><br>
<p>Broad Street connects many historical sites in Downtown Richmond. It is home to the lavish Empire Theatre, which is the states oldest operating theatre. Theatre IV, the Childrens Theatre of Virginia, the second largest childrens theatre in the nation, owns the Empire and presents its mainstage season there in downtown Richmond. Until the late 19th century, the trains of the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad ran down the center of the street from the present Harrison Street east to Eighth Street. The area around Sixth and Broad Streets was the center of retailing in the Southeast, with department stores such as Miller & Rhoads, Thalhimers, G. C. Murphy, Woolworth, Raylass, Sears, Cohens and W. T. Grant and niche retailers like Hofheimer&#39;s. It was also home to "theater row", which included venues such as the National.</p><br>
<p>It has also been the site of major institutional structures, including Monumental Church, the Library of Virginia, the present and former city halls, and the Virginia Department of Transportation headquarters.</p><br>
<p>In 1919, the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad relocated its terminal to the more suburban Broad Street Station.</p><br>
<h3>West End</h3><br>
<p>As Richmond moved westward, so did the retail district. Miles away, Short Pump Town Center in western Henrico County on Broad Street has leading retailers including Macys and Dillards.</p><br>
<p>Kayak Island , is located in the Gulf of Alaska, SE of Cordova, Alaska Malaspina Coastal Plain, on the eastern edge of Chugach National Forest. It has a land area of and no population. It is significant as the first place in Alaska a non-native set foot, and thus chosen in 1978 for the location of the commemorative Bering Expedition Landing Site.</p><br>
<p>Vitus Bering himself never went ashore. On July 20, 1741, the Bering Expedition&#39;s German naturalist George Steller landed with a watering party at a stream-head now known as the Watering Place. Steller, who in addition to being the first non-native to walk on Alaskan ground, was the first scientist to study Alaskan human, plant and animal life. Steller walked about half a mile along the beach before encountering signs of people - scraps of fish, smoldering fire. Going further, Steller came upon a cellar two fathoms deep from which he took two bundles of fish, a fire drill, arrows, tinder, and thongs of seaweed, bark, and grass, which he sent back to the ship. From there he climbed the rise what is now known as Steller Hill, before returning to the ship before dark. He wanted to stay another day, but Bering was in a hurry to leave. In 1975, a forestry official called it the "discovery point of Alaska", and The Bering Expedition Landing Site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1978.</p><br>
<p>The island was named "Kayak" in 1826 by Lt. Sarychev of the Russian Navy, because of the fancied resemblance of its outline to the Eskimo skin canoe.</p><br>
<p>Captain James Cook visited the island on May 12, 1778, and left a bottle at the base of a prominent tree, containing a slip of paper and two small pieces of silver given to him by Richard Kaye, the chaplain of King George III. The 1779 expedition of Spanish explorer Ignacio de Arteaga y Bazán sighted the island about July 16, the feast day of Our Lady of Mt. Carmel (or Carmen), and so he named it "Nuestra Señora del Carmen" or "Isla del Carmen."</p><br>
<p>Cape Saint Elias is located on the southwest end of the island. Mount Saint Elias &mdash; about 115 miles to the ENE, and at 18,009 feet (5,489 m) the second highest mountain in both the United States and Canada &mdash; was likely named after this cape. The cape is also the site of Alaska&#39;s first confirmed tornado, which caused minor damage to the area on November 4, 1959. It was the 50th and last state to confirm their first tornado since 1950.</p><br>
<p>The Cape St. Elias Light is an important aid-to-navigation located on the island.</p><br>
<p>The bottle, paper and silver Captain Cook left on Kayak Island remain undiscovered.</p><br>
<p>San Marcos de Apalache Historic State Park is a Florida State Park in Wakulla County, Florida organized around the historic site of a Spanish colonial fort , which was used by succeeding nations that controlled the area. The Spanish first built wooden buildings and a stockade in the late 17th and early 18th centuries here, which were destroyed by a hurricane.</p><br>
<p>The stone fort was built beginning in 1753. It came under successive control by Great Britain, Spain, the United States and, lastly, the Confederacy during the American Civil War. A USA Marine Hospital was built from the materials of the fort. The US took control of the site again in 1865, and the fort site was abandoned.</p><br>
<p>On November 13, 1966, the fort area was designated a National Historic Landmark because of its significance and added to the USA National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Designated as a National Engineering Landmark, the fort site has been highlighted on the Florida Native American Heritage Trail. On October 10, 1962, Congress authorized designating Fort Saint Marks as a National Historic Site upon donation of the site to the National Park Service. That donation apparently never happened, however, and the site remains a Florida State Park and a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>The historic park is located in the vicinity of St. Marks, off S.R. 363, at 148 Old Fort Road.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1679, the Spanish built a wooden stockade at this site which they called San Marcos de Apalache. It was part of their colonial expansion in the northwestern Florida area. A settlement developed around the fort beginning about 1733. Another wooden structure was built about 1753. The wooden fort was destroyed and the garrison drowned, during a hurricane.</p><br>
<p>In 1759, the Spanish began to build a stone fort, designed to resist bombardment by ships. They abandoned it to Indians for use as a trading post after ceding this territory to the British following the defeat of France in the Seven Years&#39; War, also known as the French and Indian War. The British had a garrison at the fort.</p><br>
<p>But, following the American Revolutionary War, the British traded some territory with Spain, which took over West and East Florida again. (St. Marks was in East Florida; the boundary was the Apalachicola River). Spanish forces reoccupied the San Marcos fort in 1783, and they strengthened its defenses. American settlers began penetrating the Southeast after the Revolution, settling deeper into Georgia and into the Mississippi and Alabama Territories.</p><br>
<p>General Andrew Jackson led some raids into this area during the First Seminole War and had his forces seize the Spanish Florida fort in 1818. In April 1818, the Fort was the site of the Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident. The USA occupied it for nearly a year. The Fort St. Marks military cemetery was established at that time, for the burial of men who died at the garrison. A total of 19 men were buried in the cemetery; most died from diseases, including dysentery and consumption. In 1819, the United States purchased East and West Florida from Spain, via the Adams-Onis Treaty, including the fort site.</p><br>
<p>In 1859, the federal government built a marine hospital here, using stones and other materials from the old fort. It provided care for sick seamen and area yellow fever victims.</p><br>
<p>During the Civil War, the Confederate army took over the fort, after Florida seceded from the Union. USA forces regained control in 1865, in the last year of the war.</p><br>
<p>Remains of the stone fort are in evidence at the site. A museum and visitor center have been built on the foundation of the old hospital. A stone well and a retaining wall have been reconstructed nearby, based on archeological documentation.</p><br>
<h2>Recreational activities</h2><br>
<p>The park has such amenities as hiking and picnicking areas.</p><br>
<p>The Peralta Adobe , also known as the Luis María Peralta Adobe or the Gonzales-Peralta Adobe, is the oldest building in San Jose, California. The adobe was built in 1797 by José Manuel Gonzeles, one of the founders of San Jose, and is named after Luis María Peralta, its most famous resident.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>José Manuel Gonzeles (an Apache Indian), his wife, and their five children accompanied the Spanish Anza Party to California in 1776. He was one of the founders of the Pueblo de San Jose de Guadalupe, the first municipal government in California, established in 1777. This was the second house that González lived in, the first site was untenable due to winter flooding.</p><br>
<p>In 1804, González died and the adobe went to Luís María Peralta in 1808. Peralta was a sergeant in the Spanish Army, commissioner of the Pueblo of San José, and owner of Rancho San Antonio of the East Bay, one of the largest ranchos in Alta California. Peralta divided the house into two rooms, built a porch, a kitchen and a chimney. He died in August 1851, leaving the adobe to his two daughters.</p><br>
<p>The house was the property of María Josefa Peralta until July 1862, then it passed to María Dolores Peralta until 1866, and then to Baltazar Peralta (grandson of Luís María Peralta).</p><br>
<p>During the 1870s and 1880s, the adobe was used as a storage facility by Zeffiro Bastiani, Giovanni Spinetti, and later Lorenzo Scatena. In 1949, to make way for the construction of the Lusardi building in the adjoining lot, Giuseppe Bacchio had 17inches of the north-west exterior corner of the adobe removed.</p><br>
<p>Purchased by the City of San Jose in 1966, the adobe building was restored, and the surrounding park completed in 1976. The Peralta Adobe is San Jose&#39;s Historic Landmark #1, California Historical Landmark #866, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In addition, the adobe was the first site certified as a component of the Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>The Peralta Adobe is a historic house museum, available for tours by appointment. The building covers an area of 20 feet by 41 feet (6 x 12.4 m), and has two connecting rooms of approximately equal size. The walls are about 2 ft thick, and made of adobe blocks that are 22 inches by 11 inches by 4 inches (56 x 28 x 10 cm). The adobe is furnished inside as it would have been 200 years ago. Outside is an outdoor fireplace oven (horno).</p><br>
<p>The adobe and the Thomas and Carmel Fallon House across the street from it are within The Peralta Adobe & Fallon House Historic Site, on San Pedro Square in downtown San Jose, operated by the local nonprofit History San José. The Fallon House was built in 1855 in the Victorian style.</p><br>
<h2>Related pages</h2><br>
<p>Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail</p><br>
<p>Luis María Peralta</p><br>
